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+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
+<a name="shaping-operations"></a>Shaping operations</h2></div></div></div>
+<p>
+      Shaping a complex-script text run involves transforming the
+      input sequence of Unicode codepoints with some combination of
+      operations that is specified in the shaping model for the
+      script.
+    </p>
+<p>
+      The specific conditions that trigger a given operation for a
+      text run varies from script to script, as do the order that the
+      operations are performed in and which codepoints are
+      affected. However, the same general set of shaping operations is
+      common to all of the complex-script shaping models. 
+    </p>
+<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; ">
+<li class="listitem">
+<p>
+	  A <span class="emphasis"><em>reordering</em></span> operation moves a glyph
+	  from its original ("logical") position in the sequence to
+	  some other ("visual") position.
+	</p>
+<p>
+	  The shaping model for a given complex script might involve
+	  more than one reordering step.
+	</p>
+</li>
+<li class="listitem"><p>
+	  A <span class="emphasis"><em>joining</em></span> operation replaces a glyph
+	  with an alternate form that is designed to connect with one
+	  or more of the adjacent glyphs in the sequence.
+	</p></li>
+<li class="listitem">
+<p>
+	  A contextual <span class="emphasis"><em>substitution</em></span> operation
+	  replaces either a single glyph or a subsequence of several
+	  glyphs with an alternate glyph. This substitution is
+	  performed when the original glyph or subsequence of glyphs
+	  occurs in a specified position with respect to the
+	  surrounding sequence. For example, one substitution might be
+	  performed only when the target glyph is the first glyph in
+	  the sequence, while another substitution is performed only
+	  when a different target glyph occurs immediately after a
+	  particular string pattern.
+	</p>
+<p>
+	  The shaping model for a given complex script might involve
+	  multiple contextual-substitution operations, each applying
+	  to different target glyphs and patterns, and which are
+	  performed in separate steps.
+	</p>
+</li>
+<li class="listitem">
+<p>
+	  A contextual <span class="emphasis"><em>positioning</em></span> operation
+	  moves the horizontal and/or vertical position of a
+	  glyph. This positioning move is performed when the glyph
+	  occurs in a specified position with respect to the
+	  surrounding sequence.
+	</p>
+<p>
+	  Many contextual positioning operations are used to place
+	  <span class="emphasis"><em>mark</em></span> glyphs (such as diacritics, vowel
+	  signs, and tone markers) with respect to
+	  <span class="emphasis"><em>base</em></span> glyphs. However, some complex
+	  scripts may use contextual positioning operations to
+	  correctly place base glyphs as well, such as
+	  when the script uses <span class="emphasis"><em>stacking</em></span> characters.
+	</p>
+</li>
+</ul></div>
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