path: root/doc/coreutils.texi

\input texinfo
@c %**start of header
@setfilename coreutils.info
@settitle @sc{gnu} Coreutils

@c %**end of header

@include version.texi
@include constants.texi

@c Define new indices.
@defcodeindex op
@defcodeindex fl

@c Put everything in one index (arbitrarily chosen to be the concept index).
@syncodeindex fl cp
@syncodeindex fn cp
@syncodeindex ky cp
@syncodeindex op cp
@syncodeindex pg cp
@syncodeindex vr cp

@dircategory Basics
@direntry
* Coreutils: (coreutils).       Core GNU (file, text, shell) utilities.
* Common options: (coreutils)Common options.      Common options.
* File permissions: (coreutils)File permissions.  Access modes.
* Date input formats: (coreutils)Date input formats.
@end direntry

@c FIXME: the following need documentation
@c * [: (coreutils)[ invocation.                   File/string tests.
@c * pinky: (coreutils)pinky invocation.           FIXME.
@c * uptime: (coreutils)uptime invocation.         FIXME.

@dircategory Individual utilities
@direntry
* base64: (coreutils)base64 invocation.         Base64 encode/decode data.
* basename: (coreutils)basename invocation.     Strip directory and suffix.
* cat: (coreutils)cat invocation.               Concatenate and write files.
* chgrp: (coreutils)chgrp invocation.           Change file groups.
* chmod: (coreutils)chmod invocation.           Change file permissions.
* chown: (coreutils)chown invocation.           Change file owners/groups.
* chroot: (coreutils)chroot invocation.         Specify the root directory.
* cksum: (coreutils)cksum invocation.           Print POSIX CRC checksum.
* comm: (coreutils)comm invocation.             Compare sorted files by line.
* cp: (coreutils)cp invocation.                 Copy files.
* csplit: (coreutils)csplit invocation.         Split by context.
* cut: (coreutils)cut invocation.               Print selected parts of lines.
* date: (coreutils)date invocation.             Print/set system date and time.
* dd: (coreutils)dd invocation.                 Copy and convert a file.
* df: (coreutils)df invocation.                 Report file system disk usage.
* dir: (coreutils)dir invocation.               List directories briefly.
* dircolors: (coreutils)dircolors invocation.   Color setup for ls.
* dirname: (coreutils)dirname invocation.       Strip non-directory suffix.
* du: (coreutils)du invocation.                 Report on disk usage.
* echo: (coreutils)echo invocation.             Print a line of text.
* env: (coreutils)env invocation.               Modify the environment.
* expand: (coreutils)expand invocation.         Convert tabs to spaces.
* expr: (coreutils)expr invocation.             Evaluate expressions.
* factor: (coreutils)factor invocation.         Print prime factors
* false: (coreutils)false invocation.           Do nothing, unsuccessfully.
* fmt: (coreutils)fmt invocation.               Reformat paragraph text.
* fold: (coreutils)fold invocation.             Wrap long input lines.
* groups: (coreutils)groups invocation.         Print group names a user is in.
* head: (coreutils)head invocation.             Output the first part of files.
* hostid: (coreutils)hostid invocation.         Print numeric host identifier.
* hostname: (coreutils)hostname invocation.     Print or set system name.
* id: (coreutils)id invocation.                 Print user identity.
* install: (coreutils)install invocation.       Copy and change attributes.
* join: (coreutils)join invocation.             Join lines on a common field.
* kill: (coreutils)kill invocation.             Send a signal to processes.
* link: (coreutils)link invocation.             Make hard links between files.
* ln: (coreutils)ln invocation.                 Make links between files.
* logname: (coreutils)logname invocation.       Print current login name.
* ls: (coreutils)ls invocation.                 List directory contents.
* md5sum: (coreutils)md5sum invocation.         Print or check MD5 digests.
* mkdir: (coreutils)mkdir invocation.           Create directories.
* mkfifo: (coreutils)mkfifo invocation.         Create FIFOs (named pipes).
* mknod: (coreutils)mknod invocation.           Create special files.
* mv: (coreutils)mv invocation.                 Rename files.
* nice: (coreutils)nice invocation.             Modify niceness.
* nl: (coreutils)nl invocation.                 Number lines and write files.
* nohup: (coreutils)nohup invocation.           Immunize to hangups.
* od: (coreutils)od invocation.                 Dump files in octal, etc.
* paste: (coreutils)paste invocation.           Merge lines of files.
* pathchk: (coreutils)pathchk invocation.       Check file name portability.
* pr: (coreutils)pr invocation.                 Paginate or columnate files.
* printenv: (coreutils)printenv invocation.     Print environment variables.
* printf: (coreutils)printf invocation.         Format and print data.
* ptx: (coreutils)ptx invocation.               Produce permuted indexes.
* pwd: (coreutils)pwd invocation.               Print working directory.
* readlink: (coreutils)readlink invocation.     Print referent of a symlink.
* rm: (coreutils)rm invocation.                 Remove files.
* rmdir: (coreutils)rmdir invocation.           Remove empty directories.
* seq: (coreutils)seq invocation.               Print numeric sequences
* sha1sum: (coreutils)sha1sum invocation.       Print or check SHA-1 digests.
* sha2: (coreutils)sha2 utilities.              Print or check SHA-2 digests.
* shred: (coreutils)shred invocation.           Remove files more securely.
* shuf: (coreutils)shuf invocation.             Shuffling text files.
* sleep: (coreutils)sleep invocation.           Delay for a specified time.
* sort: (coreutils)sort invocation.             Sort text files.
* split: (coreutils)split invocation.           Split into fixed-size pieces.
* stat: (coreutils)stat invocation.             Report file(system) status.
* stty: (coreutils)stty invocation.             Print/change terminal settings.
* su: (coreutils)su invocation.                 Modify user and group ID.
* sum: (coreutils)sum invocation.               Print traditional checksum.
* sync: (coreutils)sync invocation.             Synchronize memory and disk.
* tac: (coreutils)tac invocation.               Reverse files.
* tail: (coreutils)tail invocation.             Output the last part of files.
* tee: (coreutils)tee invocation.               Redirect to multiple files.
* test: (coreutils)test invocation.             File/string tests.
* touch: (coreutils)touch invocation.           Change file timestamps.
* tr: (coreutils)tr invocation.                 Translate characters.
* true: (coreutils)true invocation.             Do nothing, successfully.
* tsort: (coreutils)tsort invocation.           Topological sort.
* tty: (coreutils)tty invocation.               Print terminal name.
* uname: (coreutils)uname invocation.           Print system information.
* unexpand: (coreutils)unexpand invocation.     Convert spaces to tabs.
* uniq: (coreutils)uniq invocation.             Uniquify files.
* unlink: (coreutils)unlink invocation.         Removal via unlink(2).
* users: (coreutils)users invocation.           Print current user names.
* vdir: (coreutils)vdir invocation.             List directories verbosely.
* wc: (coreutils)wc invocation.                 Line, word, and byte counts.
* who: (coreutils)who invocation.               Print who is logged in.
* whoami: (coreutils)whoami invocation.         Print effective user ID.
* yes: (coreutils)yes invocation.               Print a string indefinitely.
@end direntry

@copying
This manual documents version @value{VERSION} of the @sc{gnu} core
utilities, including the standard programs for text and file manipulation.

Copyright @copyright{} 1994, 1995, 1996, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004,
2005, 2006 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

@quotation
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no
Invariant Sections, with no Front-Cover Texts, and with no Back-Cover
Texts.  A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU
Free Documentation License''.
@end quotation
@end copying

@titlepage
@title @sc{gnu} @code{Coreutils}
@subtitle Core GNU utilities
@subtitle for version @value{VERSION}, @value{UPDATED}
@author David MacKenzie et al.

@page
@vskip 0pt plus 1filll
@insertcopying
@end titlepage


@ifnottex
@node Top
@top GNU Coreutils

@insertcopying
@end ifnottex

@cindex core utilities
@cindex text utilities
@cindex shell utilities
@cindex file utilities

@menu
* Introduction::                       Caveats, overview, and authors.
* Common options::                     Common options.
* Output of entire files::             cat tac nl od
* Formatting file contents::           fmt pr fold
* Output of parts of files::           head tail split csplit
* Summarizing files::                  wc sum cksum md5sum sha1sum sha2
* Operating on sorted files::          sort shuf uniq comm ptx tsort
* Operating on fields within a line::  cut paste join
* Operating on characters::            tr expand unexpand
* Directory listing::                  ls dir vdir dircolors
* Basic operations::                   cp dd install mv rm shred
* Special file types::                 ln mkdir rmdir mkfifo mknod
* Changing file attributes::           chgrp chmod chown touch
* Disk usage::                         df du stat sync
* Printing text::                      echo printf yes
* Conditions::                         false true test expr
* Redirection::                        tee
* File name manipulation::             dirname basename pathchk
* Working context::                    pwd stty printenv tty
* User information::                   id logname whoami groups users who
* System context::                     date uname hostname hostid
* Modified command invocation::        chroot env nice nohup su
* Process control::                    kill
* Delaying::                           sleep
* Numeric operations::                 factor seq
* File permissions::                   Access modes.
* Date input formats::                 Specifying date strings.
* Opening the software toolbox::       The software tools philosophy.
* Copying This Manual::                License for copying this manual.
* Index::                              General index.

@detailmenu
 --- The Detailed Node Listing ---

Common Options

* Exit status::                 Indicating program success or failure.
* Backup options::              Backup options
* Block size::                  Block size
* Disambiguating names and IDs:: chgrp and chown owner and group syntax
* Random sources::              Sources of random data
* Target directory::            Target directory
* Trailing slashes::            Trailing slashes
* Traversing symlinks::         Traversing symlinks to directories
* Treating / specially::        Treating / specially
* Standards conformance::       Standards conformance

Output of entire files

* cat invocation::              Concatenate and write files.
* tac invocation::              Concatenate and write files in reverse.
* nl invocation::               Number lines and write files.
* od invocation::               Write files in octal or other formats.
* base64 invocation::           Transform data into printable data.

Formatting file contents

* fmt invocation::              Reformat paragraph text.
* pr invocation::               Paginate or columnate files for printing.
* fold invocation::             Wrap input lines to fit in specified width.

Output of parts of files

* head invocation::             Output the first part of files.
* tail invocation::             Output the last part of files.
* split invocation::            Split a file into fixed-size pieces.
* csplit invocation::           Split a file into context-determined pieces.

Summarizing files

* wc invocation::               Print newline, word, and byte counts.
* sum invocation::              Print checksum and block counts.
* cksum invocation::            Print CRC checksum and byte counts.
* md5sum invocation::           Print or check MD5 digests.
* sha1sum invocation::          Print or check SHA-1 digests.
* sha2 utilities::              Print or check SHA-2 digests.

Operating on sorted files

* sort invocation::             Sort text files.
* shuf invocation::             Shuffle text files.
* uniq invocation::             Uniquify files.
* comm invocation::             Compare two sorted files line by line.
* ptx invocation::              Produce a permuted index of file contents.
* tsort invocation::            Topological sort.

@command{ptx}: Produce permuted indexes

* General options in ptx::      Options which affect general program behavior.
* Charset selection in ptx::    Underlying character set considerations.
* Input processing in ptx::     Input fields, contexts, and keyword selection.
* Output formatting in ptx::    Types of output format, and sizing the fields.
* Compatibility in ptx::        The @acronym{GNU} extensions to @command{ptx}

Operating on fields within a line

* cut invocation::              Print selected parts of lines.
* paste invocation::            Merge lines of files.
* join invocation::             Join lines on a common field.

Operating on characters

* tr invocation::               Translate, squeeze, and/or delete characters.
* expand invocation::           Convert tabs to spaces.
* unexpand invocation::         Convert spaces to tabs.

@command{tr}: Translate, squeeze, and/or delete characters

* Character sets::              Specifying sets of characters.
* Translating::                 Changing one set of characters to another.
* Squeezing::                   Squeezing repeats and deleting.

Directory listing

* ls invocation::               List directory contents
* dir invocation::              Briefly list directory contents
* vdir invocation::             Verbosely list directory contents
* dircolors invocation::        Color setup for @command{ls}

@command{ls}:  List directory contents

* Which files are listed::      Which files are listed
* What information is listed::  What information is listed
* Sorting the output::          Sorting the output
* More details about version sort::  More details about version sort
* General output formatting::   General output formatting
* Formatting the file names::   Formatting the file names

Basic operations

* cp invocation::               Copy files and directories
* dd invocation::               Convert and copy a file
* install invocation::          Copy files and set attributes
* mv invocation::               Move (rename) files
* rm invocation::               Remove files or directories
* shred invocation::            Remove files more securely

Special file types

* link invocation::             Make a hard link via the link syscall
* ln invocation::               Make links between files
* mkdir invocation::            Make directories
* mkfifo invocation::           Make FIFOs (named pipes)
* mknod invocation::            Make block or character special files
* readlink invocation::         Print the referent of a symbolic link
* rmdir invocation::            Remove empty directories
* unlink invocation::           Remove files via unlink syscall

Changing file attributes

* chown invocation::            Change file owner and group
* chgrp invocation::            Change group ownership
* chmod invocation::            Change access permissions
* touch invocation::            Change file timestamps

Disk usage

* df invocation::               Report file system disk space usage
* du invocation::               Estimate file space usage
* stat invocation::             Report file or file system status
* sync invocation::             Synchronize data on disk with memory

Printing text

* echo invocation::             Print a line of text
* printf invocation::           Format and print data
* yes invocation::              Print a string until interrupted

Conditions

* false invocation::              Do nothing, unsuccessfully
* true invocation::               Do nothing, successfully
* test invocation::               Check file types and compare values
* expr invocation::               Evaluate expressions

@command{test}: Check file types and compare values

* File type tests::               File type tests
* Access permission tests::       Access permission tests
* File characteristic tests::     File characteristic tests
* String tests::                  String tests
* Numeric tests::                 Numeric tests

@command{expr}: Evaluate expression

* String expressions::         + : match substr index length
* Numeric expressions::        + - * / %
* Relations for expr::         | & < <= = == != >= >
* Examples of expr::           Examples of using @command{expr}

Redirection

* tee invocation::               Redirect output to multiple files

File name manipulation

* basename invocation::          Strip directory and suffix from a file name
* dirname invocation::           Strip non-directory suffix from a file name
* pathchk invocation::           Check file name portability

Working context

* pwd invocation::               Print working directory
* stty invocation::              Print or change terminal characteristics
* printenv invocation::          Print all or some environment variables
* tty invocation::               Print file name of terminal on standard input

@command{stty}: Print or change terminal characteristics

* Control::                     Control settings
* Input::                       Input settings
* Output::                      Output settings
* Local::                       Local settings
* Combination::                 Combination settings
* Characters::                  Special characters
* Special::                     Special settings

User information

* id invocation::                Print user identity
* logname invocation::           Print current login name
* whoami invocation::            Print effective user ID
* groups invocation::            Print group names a user is in
* users invocation::             Print login names of users currently logged in
* who invocation::               Print who is currently logged in

System context

* date invocation::              Print or set system date and time
* uname invocation::             Print system information
* hostname invocation::          Print or set system name
* hostid invocation::            Print numeric host identifier.

@command{date}: Print or set system date and time

* Time conversion specifiers::   %[HIklMNpPrRsSTXzZ]
* Date conversion specifiers::   %[aAbBcCdDeFgGhjmuUVwWxyY]
* Literal conversion specifiers:: %[%nt]
* Padding and other flags::      Pad with zeros, spaces, etc.
* Setting the time::             Changing the system clock.
* Options for date::             Instead of the current time.
* Examples of date::             Examples.

Modified command invocation

* chroot invocation::            Run a command with a different root directory
* env invocation::               Run a command in a modified environment
* nice invocation::              Run a command with modified niceness
* nohup invocation::             Run a command immune to hangups
* su invocation::                Run a command with substitute user and group ID

Process control

* kill invocation::              Sending a signal to processes.

Delaying

* sleep invocation::             Delay for a specified time

Numeric operations

* factor invocation::            Print prime factors
* seq invocation::               Print numeric sequences

File permissions

* Mode Structure::               Structure of file mode bits.
* Symbolic Modes::               Mnemonic representation of file mode bits.
* Numeric Modes::                File mode bits as octal numbers.
* Directory Setuid and Setgid::  Set-user-ID and set-group-ID on directories.

Date input formats

* General date syntax::          Common rules.
* Calendar date items::          19 Dec 1994.
* Time of day items::            9:20pm.
* Time zone items::              @sc{est}, @sc{pdt}, @sc{gmt}.
* Day of week items::            Monday and others.
* Relative items in date strings:: next tuesday, 2 years ago.
* Pure numbers in date strings:: 19931219, 1440.
* Seconds since the Epoch::      @@1078100502.
* Specifying time zone rules::   TZ="America/New_York", TZ="UTC0".
* Authors of get_date::          Bellovin, Eggert, Salz, Berets, et al.

Opening the software toolbox

* Toolbox introduction::         Toolbox introduction
* I/O redirection::              I/O redirection
* The who command::              The @command{who} command
* The cut command::              The @command{cut} command
* The sort command::             The @command{sort} command
* The uniq command::             The @command{uniq} command
* Putting the tools together::   Putting the tools together

Copying This Manual

* GNU Free Documentation License::  License for copying this manual.

@end detailmenu
@end menu


@node Introduction
@chapter Introduction

This manual is a work in progress: many sections make no attempt to explain
basic concepts in a way suitable for novices.  Thus, if you are interested,
please get involved in improving this manual.  The entire @sc{gnu} community
will benefit.

@cindex @acronym{POSIX}
The @sc{gnu} utilities documented here are mostly compatible with the
@acronym{POSIX} standard.
@cindex bugs, reporting
Please report bugs to @email{bug-coreutils@@gnu.org}.  Remember
to include the version number, machine architecture, input files, and
any other information needed to reproduce the bug: your input, what you
expected, what you got, and why it is wrong.  Diffs are welcome, but
please include a description of the problem as well, since this is
sometimes difficult to infer.  @xref{Bugs, , , gcc, Using and Porting GNU CC}.

@cindex Berry, K.
@cindex Paterson, R.
@cindex Stallman, R.
@cindex Pinard, F.
@cindex MacKenzie, D.
@cindex Meyering, J.
@cindex Youmans, B.
This manual was originally derived from the Unix man pages in the
distributions, which were written by David MacKenzie and updated by Jim
Meyering.  What you are reading now is the authoritative documentation
for these utilities; the man pages are no longer being maintained.  The
original @command{fmt} man page was written by Ross Paterson.  Fran@,{c}ois
Pinard did the initial conversion to Texinfo format.  Karl Berry did the
indexing, some reorganization, and editing of the results.  Brian
Youmans of the Free Software Foundation office staff combined the
manuals for textutils, fileutils, and sh-utils to produce the present
omnibus manual.  Richard Stallman contributed his usual invaluable
insights to the overall process.

@node Common options
@chapter Common options

@macro optBackup
@item -b
@itemx @w{@kbd{--backup}[=@var{method}]}
@opindex -b
@opindex --backup
@vindex VERSION_CONTROL
@cindex backups, making
@xref{Backup options}.
Make a backup of each file that would otherwise be overwritten or removed.
@end macro

@macro optBackupSuffix
@item -S @var{suffix}
@itemx --suffix=@var{suffix}
@opindex -S
@opindex --suffix
Append @var{suffix} to each backup file made with @option{-b}.
@xref{Backup options}.
@end macro

@macro optTargetDirectory
@item -t @var{directory}
@itemx @w{@kbd{--target-directory}=@var{directory}}
@opindex -t
@opindex --target-directory
@cindex target directory
@cindex destination directory
Specify the destination @var{directory}.
@xref{Target directory}.
@end macro

@macro optNoTargetDirectory
@item -T
@itemx --no-target-directory
@opindex -T
@opindex --no-target-directory
@cindex target directory
@cindex destination directory
Do not treat the last operand specially when it is a directory or a
symbolic link to a directory.  @xref{Target directory}.
@end macro

@macro optSi
@itemx --si
@opindex --si
@cindex SI output
Append an SI-style abbreviation to each size, such as @samp{M} for
megabytes.  Powers of 1000 are used, not 1024; @samp{M} stands for
1,000,000 bytes.  This option is equivalent to
@option{--block-size=si}.  Use the @option{-h} or
@option{--human-readable} option if
you prefer powers of 1024.
@end macro

@macro optHumanReadable
@item -h
@itemx --human-readable
@opindex -h
@opindex --human-readable
@cindex human-readable output
Append a size letter to each size, such as @samp{M} for mebibytes.
Powers of 1024 are used, not 1000; @samp{M} stands for 1,048,576 bytes.
Use the @option{--si} option if you prefer powers of 1000.
@end macro

@macro optStripTrailingSlashes
@itemx @w{@kbd{--strip-trailing-slashes}}
@opindex --strip-trailing-slashes
@cindex stripping trailing slashes
Remove any trailing slashes from each @var{source} argument.
@xref{Trailing slashes}.
@end macro

@cindex common options

Certain options are available in all of these programs.  Rather than
writing identical descriptions for each of the programs, they are
described here.  (In fact, every @sc{gnu} program accepts (or should accept)
these options.)

@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
Normally options and operands can appear in any order, and programs act
as if all the options appear before any operands.  For example,
@samp{sort -r passwd -t :} acts like @samp{sort -r -t : passwd}, since
@samp{:} is an option-argument of @option{-t}.  However, if the
@env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment variable is set, options must appear
before operands, unless otherwise specified for a particular command.

A few programs can usefully have trailing operands with leading
@samp{-}.  With such a program, options must precede operands even if
@env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is not set, and this fact is noted in the
program description.  For example, the @command{env} command's options
must appear before its operands, since in some cases the operands
specify a command that itself contains options.

Some of these programs recognize the @option{--help} and @option{--version}
options only when one of them is the sole command line argument.

@table @samp

@item --help
@opindex --help
@cindex help, online
Print a usage message listing all available options, then exit successfully.

@item --version
@opindex --version
@cindex version number, finding
Print the version number, then exit successfully.

@item --
@opindex --
@cindex option delimiter
Delimit the option list.  Later arguments, if any, are treated as
operands even if they begin with @samp{-}.  For example, @samp{sort --
-r} reads from the file named @file{-r}.

@end table

@cindex standard input
@cindex standard output
A single @samp{-} operand is not really an option, though it looks like one.  It
stands for standard input, or for standard output if that is clear from
the context.  For example, @samp{sort -} reads from standard input,
and is equivalent to plain @samp{sort}, and @samp{tee -} writes an
extra copy of its input to standard output.  Unless otherwise
specified, @samp{-} can appear as any operand that requires a file
name.

@menu
* Exit status::                 Indicating program success or failure.
* Backup options::              -b -S, in some programs.
* Block size::                  BLOCK_SIZE and --block-size, in some programs.
* Disambiguating names and IDs:: chgrp and chown owner and group syntax
* Random sources::              --random-source, in some programs.
* Target directory::            Specifying a target directory, in some programs.
* Trailing slashes::            --strip-trailing-slashes, in some programs.
* Traversing symlinks::         -H, -L, or -P, in some programs.
* Treating / specially::        --preserve-root and --no-preserve-root.
* Special built-in utilities::  @command{break}, @command{:}, @command{eval}, @dots{}
* Standards conformance::       Conformance to the @acronym{POSIX} standard.
@end menu


@node Exit status
@section Exit status

@macro exitstatus
An exit status of zero indicates success,
and a nonzero value indicates failure.
@end macro

Nearly every command invocation yields an integral @dfn{exit status}
that can be used to change how other commands work.
For the vast majority of commands, an exit status of zero indicates
success.  Failure is indicated by a nonzero value---typically
@samp{1}, though it may differ on unusual platforms as @acronym{POSIX}
requires only that it be nonzero.

However, some of the programs documented here do produce
other exit status values and a few associate different
meanings with the values @samp{0} and @samp{1}.
Here are some of the exceptions:
@command{chroot}, @command{env}, @command{expr},
@command{nice}, @command{nohup}, @command{printenv},
@command{sort}, @command{su}, @command{test}, @command{tty}.


@node Backup options
@section Backup options

@cindex backup options

Some @sc{gnu} programs (at least @command{cp}, @command{install},
@command{ln}, and @command{mv}) optionally make backups of files
before writing new versions.
These options control the details of these backups.  The options are also
briefly mentioned in the descriptions of the particular programs.

@table @samp

@item -b
@itemx @w{@kbd{--backup}[=@var{method}]}
@opindex -b
@opindex --backup
@vindex VERSION_CONTROL
@cindex backups, making
Make a backup of each file that would otherwise be overwritten or removed.
Without this option, the original versions are destroyed.
Use @var{method} to determine the type of backups to make.
When this option is used but @var{method} is not specified,
then the value of the @env{VERSION_CONTROL}
environment variable is used.  And if @env{VERSION_CONTROL} is not set,
the default backup type is @samp{existing}.

Note that the short form of this option, @option{-b} does not accept any
argument.  Using @option{-b} is equivalent to using @option{--backup=existing}.

@vindex version-control @r{Emacs variable}
This option corresponds to the Emacs variable @samp{version-control};
the values for @var{method} are the same as those used in Emacs.
This option also accepts more descriptive names.
The valid @var{method}s are (unique abbreviations are accepted):

@table @samp
@item none
@itemx off
@opindex none @r{backup method}
Never make backups.

@item numbered
@itemx t
@opindex numbered @r{backup method}
Always make numbered backups.

@item existing
@itemx nil
@opindex existing @r{backup method}
Make numbered backups of files that already have them, simple backups
of the others.

@item simple
@itemx never
@opindex simple @r{backup method}
Always make simple backups.  Please note @samp{never} is not to be
confused with @samp{none}.

@end table

@item -S @var{suffix}
@itemx --suffix=@var{suffix}
@opindex -S
@opindex --suffix
@cindex backup suffix
@vindex SIMPLE_BACKUP_SUFFIX
Append @var{suffix} to each backup file made with @option{-b}.  If this
option is not specified, the value of the @env{SIMPLE_BACKUP_SUFFIX}
environment variable is used.  And if @env{SIMPLE_BACKUP_SUFFIX} is not
set, the default is @samp{~}, just as in Emacs.

@end table

@node Block size
@section Block size

@cindex block size

Some @sc{gnu} programs (at least @command{df}, @command{du}, and
@command{ls}) display sizes in ``blocks''.  You can adjust the block size
and method of display to make sizes easier to read.  The block size
used for display is independent of any file system block size.
Fractional block counts are rounded up to the nearest integer.

@opindex --block-size=@var{size}
@vindex BLOCKSIZE
@vindex BLOCK_SIZE
@vindex DF_BLOCK_SIZE
@vindex DU_BLOCK_SIZE
@vindex LS_BLOCK_SIZE
@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT@r{, and block size}

The default block size is chosen by examining the following environment
variables in turn; the first one that is set determines the block size.

@table @code

@item DF_BLOCK_SIZE
This specifies the default block size for the @command{df} command.
Similarly, @env{DU_BLOCK_SIZE} specifies the default for @command{du} and
@env{LS_BLOCK_SIZE} for @command{ls}.

@item BLOCK_SIZE
This specifies the default block size for all three commands, if the
above command-specific environment variables are not set.

@item BLOCKSIZE
This specifies the default block size for all values that are normally
printed as blocks, if neither @env{BLOCK_SIZE} nor the above
command-specific environment variables are set.  Unlike the other
environment variables, @env{BLOCKSIZE} does not affect values that are
normally printed as byte counts, e.g., the file sizes contained in
@code{ls -l} output.

@item POSIXLY_CORRECT
If neither @env{@var{command}_BLOCK_SIZE}, nor @env{BLOCK_SIZE}, nor
@env{BLOCKSIZE} is set, but this variable is set, the block size
defaults to 512.

@end table

If none of the above environment variables are set, the block size
currently defaults to 1024 bytes in most contexts, but this number may
change in the future.  For @command{ls} file sizes, the block size
defaults to 1 byte.

@cindex human-readable output
@cindex SI output

A block size specification can be a positive integer specifying the number
of bytes per block, or it can be @code{human-readable} or @code{si} to
select a human-readable format.  Integers may be followed by suffixes
that are upward compatible with the
@uref{http://www.bipm.fr/enus/3_SI/si-prefixes.html, SI prefixes}
for decimal multiples and with the
@uref{http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html, IEC 60027-2
prefixes for binary multiples}.

With human-readable formats, output sizes are followed by a size letter
such as @samp{M} for megabytes.  @code{BLOCK_SIZE=human-readable} uses
powers of 1024; @samp{M} stands for 1,048,576 bytes.
@code{BLOCK_SIZE=si} is similar, but uses powers of 1000 and appends
@samp{B}; @samp{MB} stands for 1,000,000 bytes.

@vindex LC_NUMERIC
A block size specification preceded by @samp{'} causes output sizes to
be displayed with thousands separators.  The @env{LC_NUMERIC} locale
specifies the thousands separator and grouping.  For example, in an
American English locale, @samp{--block-size="'1kB"} would cause a size
of 1234000 bytes to be displayed as @samp{1,234}.  In the default C
locale, there is no thousands separator so a leading @samp{'} has no
effect.

An integer block size can be followed by a suffix to specify a
multiple of that size.  A bare size letter,
or one followed by @samp{iB}, specifies
a multiple using powers of 1024.  A size letter followed by @samp{B}
specifies powers of 1000 instead.  For example, @samp{1M} and
@samp{1MiB} are equivalent to @samp{1048576}, whereas @samp{1MB} is
equivalent to @samp{1000000}.

A plain suffix without a preceding integer acts as if @samp{1} were
prepended, except that it causes a size indication to be appended to
the output.  For example, @samp{--block-size="kB"} displays 3000 as
@samp{3kB}.

The following suffixes are defined.  Large sizes like @code{1Y}
may be rejected by your computer due to limitations of its arithmetic.

@table @samp
@item kB
@cindex kilobyte, definition of
kilobyte: @math{10^3 = 1000}.
@item k
@itemx K
@itemx KiB
@cindex kibibyte, definition of
kibibyte: @math{2^10 = 1024}.  @samp{K} is special: the SI prefix is
@samp{k} and the IEC 60027-2 prefix is @samp{Ki}, but tradition and
@acronym{POSIX} use @samp{k} to mean @samp{KiB}.
@item MB
@cindex megabyte, definition of
megabyte: @math{10^6 = 1,000,000}.
@item M
@itemx MiB
@cindex mebibyte, definition of
mebibyte: @math{2^20 = 1,048,576}.
@item GB
@cindex gigabyte, definition of
gigabyte: @math{10^9 = 1,000,000,000}.
@item G
@itemx GiB
@cindex gibibyte, definition of
gibibyte: @math{2^30 = 1,073,741,824}.
@item TB
@cindex terabyte, definition of
terabyte:  @math{10^12 = 1,000,000,000,000}.
@item T
@itemx TiB
@cindex tebibyte, definition of
tebibyte: @math{2^40 = 1,099,511,627,776}.
@item PB
@cindex petabyte, definition of
petabyte: @math{10^15 = 1,000,000,000,000,000}.
@item P
@itemx PiB
@cindex pebibyte, definition of
pebibyte: @math{2^50 = 1,125,899,906,842,624}.
@item EB
@cindex exabyte, definition of
exabyte: @math{10^18 = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000}.
@item E
@itemx EiB
@cindex exbibyte, definition of
exbibyte: @math{2^60 = 1,152,921,504,606,846,976}.
@item ZB
@cindex zettabyte, definition of
zettabyte: @math{10^21 = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000}
@item Z
@itemx ZiB
@math{2^70 = 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424}.
(@samp{Zi} is a @acronym{GNU} extension to IEC 60027-2.)
@item YB
@cindex yottabyte, definition of
yottabyte: @math{10^24 = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000}.
@item Y
@itemx YiB
@math{2^80 = 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176}.
(@samp{Yi} is a @acronym{GNU} extension to IEC 60027-2.)
@end table

@opindex -k
@opindex -h
@opindex --block-size
@opindex --human-readable
@opindex --si

Block size defaults can be overridden by an explicit
@option{--block-size=@var{size}} option.  The @option{-k}
option is equivalent to @option{--block-size=1K}, which
is the default unless the @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment variable is
set.  The @option{-h} or @option{--human-readable} option is equivalent to
@option{--block-size=human-readable}.  The @option{--si} option is
equivalent to @option{--block-size=si}.

@node Disambiguating names and IDs
@section chown and chgrp: Disambiguating user names and IDs
@cindex user names, disambiguating
@cindex user IDs, disambiguating
@cindex group names, disambiguating
@cindex group IDs, disambiguating
@cindex disambiguating group names and IDs

Since the @var{owner} and @var{group} arguments to @command{chown} and
@command{chgrp} may be specified as names or numeric IDs, there is an
apparent ambiguity.
What if a user or group @emph{name} is a string of digits?
@footnote{Using a number as a user name is common in some environments.}
Should the command interpret it as a user name or as an ID?
@acronym{POSIX} requires that @command{chown} and @command{chgrp}
first attempt to resolve the specified string as a name, and
only once that fails, then try to interpret it as an ID.
This is troublesome when you want to specify a numeric ID, say 42,
and it must work even in a pathological situation where
@samp{42} is a user name that maps to some other user ID, say 1000.
Simply invoking @code{chown 42 F}, will set @file{F}s owner ID to
1000---not what you intended.

GNU @command{chown} and @command{chgrp} provide a way to work around this,
that at the same time may result in a significant performance improvement
by eliminating a database look-up.
Simply precede each numeric user ID and/or group ID with a @samp{+},
in order to force its interpretation as an integer:

@example
chown +42 F
chgrp +$numeric_group_id another-file
chown +0:+0 /
@end example

GNU @command{chown} and @command{chgrp}
skip the name look-up process for each @samp{+}-prefixed string,
because a string containing @samp{+} is never a valid user or group name.
This syntax is accepted on most common Unix systems, but not on Solaris 10.

@node Random sources
@section Sources of random data

@cindex random sources

The @command{shuf}, @command{shred}, and @command{sort} commands
sometimes need random data to do their work.  For example, @samp{sort
-R} must choose a hash function at random, and it needs random data to
make this selection.

Normally these commands use the device file @file{/dev/urandom} as the
source of random data.  Typically, this device gathers environmental
noise from device drivers and other sources into an entropy pool, and
uses the pool to generate random bits.  If the pool is short of data,
the device reuses the internal pool to produce more bits, using a
cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator.

@file{/dev/urandom} suffices for most practical uses, but applications
requiring high-value or long-term protection of private data may
require an alternate data source like @file{/dev/random} or
@file{/dev/arandom}.  The set of available sources depends on your
operating system.

To use such a source, specify the @option{--random-source=@var{file}}
option, e.g., @samp{shuf --random-source=/dev/random}.  The contents
of @var{file} should be as random as possible.  An error is reported
if @var{file} does not contain enough bytes to randomize the input
adequately.

To reproduce the results of an earlier invocation of a command, you
can save some random data into a file and then use that file as the
random source in earlier and later invocations of the command.

Some old-fashioned or stripped-down operating systems lack support for
@command{/dev/urandom}.  On these systems commands like @command{shuf}
by default fall back on an internal pseudorandom generator initialized
by a small amount of entropy.

@node Target directory
@section Target directory

@cindex target directory

The @command{cp}, @command{install}, @command{ln}, and @command{mv}
commands normally treat the last operand specially when it is a
directory or a symbolic link to a directory.  For example, @samp{cp
source dest} is equivalent to @samp{cp source dest/source} if
@file{dest} is a directory.  Sometimes this behavior is not exactly
what is wanted, so these commands support the following options to
allow more fine-grained control:

@table @samp

@item -T
@itemx --no-target-directory
@opindex --no-target-directory
@cindex target directory
@cindex destination directory
Do not treat the last operand specially when it is a directory or a
symbolic link to a directory.  This can help avoid race conditions in
programs that operate in a shared area.  For example, when the command
@samp{mv /tmp/source /tmp/dest} succeeds, there is no guarantee that
@file{/tmp/source} was renamed to @file{/tmp/dest}: it could have been
renamed to @file{/tmp/dest/source} instead, if some other process
created @file{/tmp/dest} as a directory.  However, if @file{mv
-T /tmp/source /tmp/dest} succeeds, there is no
question that @file{/tmp/source} was renamed to @file{/tmp/dest}.

In the opposite situation, where you want the last operand to be
treated as a directory and want a diagnostic otherwise, you can use
the @option{--target-directory} (@option{-t}) option.

@item -t @var{directory}
@itemx @w{@kbd{--target-directory}=@var{directory}}
@opindex --target-directory
@cindex target directory
@cindex destination directory
Use @var{directory} as the directory component of each destination
file name.

The interface for most programs is that after processing options and a
finite (possibly zero) number of fixed-position arguments, the remaining
argument list is either expected to be empty, or is a list of items
(usually files) that will all be handled identically.  The @command{xargs}
program is designed to work well with this convention.

The commands in the @command{mv}-family are unusual in that they take
a variable number of arguments with a special case at the @emph{end}
(namely, the target directory).  This makes it nontrivial to perform some
operations, e.g., ``move all files from here to ../d/'', because
@code{mv * ../d/} might exhaust the argument space, and @code{ls | xargs ...}
doesn't have a clean way to specify an extra final argument for each
invocation of the subject command.  (It can be done by going through a
shell command, but that requires more human labor and brain power than
it should.)

The @w{@kbd{--target-directory}} (@option{-t}) option allows the @command{cp},
@command{install}, @command{ln}, and @command{mv} programs to be used
conveniently with @command{xargs}.  For example, you can move the files
from the current directory to a sibling directory, @code{d} like this:

@smallexample
ls | xargs mv -t ../d --
@end smallexample

However, this doesn't move files whose names begin with @samp{.}.
If you use the @sc{gnu} @command{find} program, you can move those
files too, with this command:

@example
find . -mindepth 1 -maxdepth 1 \
  | xargs mv -t ../d
@end example

But both of the above approaches fail if there are no files in the
current directory, or if any file has a name containing a blank or
some other special characters.
The following example removes those limitations and requires both
@sc{gnu} @command{find} and @sc{gnu} @command{xargs}:

@example
find . -mindepth 1 -maxdepth 1 -print0 \
  | xargs --null --no-run-if-empty \
      mv -t ../d
@end example

@end table

@noindent
The @option{--target-directory} (@option{-t}) and
@option{--no-target-directory} (@option{-T})
options cannot be combined.

@node Trailing slashes
@section Trailing slashes

@cindex trailing slashes

Some @sc{gnu} programs (at least @command{cp} and @command{mv}) allow you to
remove any trailing slashes from each @var{source} argument before
operating on it.  The @w{@kbd{--strip-trailing-slashes}} option enables
this behavior.

This is useful when a @var{source} argument may have a trailing slash and
@c FIXME: mv's behavior in this case is system-dependent
specify a symbolic link to a directory.  This scenario is in fact rather
common because some shells can automatically append a trailing slash when
performing file name completion on such symbolic links.  Without this
option, @command{mv}, for example, (via the system's rename function) must
interpret a trailing slash as a request to dereference the symbolic link
and so must rename the indirectly referenced @emph{directory} and not
the symbolic link.  Although it may seem surprising that such behavior
be the default, it is required by @acronym{POSIX} and is consistent with
other parts of that standard.

@node Traversing symlinks
@section Traversing symlinks

@cindex symbolic link to directory, controlling traversal of

The following options modify how @command{chown} and @command{chgrp}
@c FIXME: note that `du' has these options, too, but they have slightly
@c different meaning.
traverse a hierarchy when the @option{--recursive} (@option{-R})
option is also specified.
If more than one of the following options is specified, only the final
one takes effect.
These options specify whether processing a symbolic link to a directory
entails operating on just the symbolic link or on all files in the
hierarchy rooted at that directory.

These options are independent of @option{--dereference} and
@option{--no-dereference} (@option{-h}), which control whether to modify
a symlink or its referent.

@table @samp

@macro choptH
@item -H
@opindex -H
@cindex symbolic link to directory, traverse each that is specified on the command line
If @option{--recursive} (@option{-R}) is specified and
a command line argument is a symbolic link to a directory, traverse it.
@end macro
@choptH

@macro choptL
@item -L
@opindex -L
@cindex symbolic link to directory, traverse each that is encountered
In a recursive traversal, traverse every symbolic link to a directory
that is encountered.
@end macro
@choptL

@macro choptP
@item -P
@opindex -P
@cindex symbolic link to directory, never traverse
Do not traverse any symbolic links.
This is the default if none of @option{-H}, @option{-L},
or @option{-P} is specified.
@end macro
@choptP

@end table


@node Treating / specially
@section Treating / specially

Certain commands can operate destructively on entire hierarchies.
For example, if a user with appropriate privileges mistakenly runs
@samp{rm -rf / tmp/junk}, that may remove
all files on the entire system.  Since there are so few
legitimate uses for such a command,
@sc{gnu} @command{rm} normally declines to operate on any directory
that resolves to @file{/}.  If you really want to try to remove all
the files on your system, you can use the @option{--no-preserve-root}
option, but the default behavior, specified by the
@option{--preserve-option}, is safer for most purposes.

The commands @command{chgrp}, @command{chmod} and @command{chown}
can also operate destructively on entire hierarchies, so they too
support these options.  Although, unlike @command{rm}, they don't
actually unlink files, these commands are arguably more dangerous
when operating recursively on @file{/}, since they often work much
more quickly, and hence damage more files before an alert user can
interrupt them.  Tradition and @acronym{POSIX} require these commands
to operate recursively on @file{/}, so they default to
@option{--no-preserve-root}, but using the @option{--preserve-root}
option makes them safer for most purposes.  For convenience you can
specify @option{--preserve-root} in an alias or in a shell function.

Note that the @option{--preserve-root} option also ensures
that @command{chgrp} and @command{chown} do not modify @file{/}
even when dereferencing a symlink pointing to @file{/}.

@node Special built-in utilities
@section Special built-in utilities

Some programs like @command{nice} can invoke other programs; for
example, the command @samp{nice cat file} invokes the program
@command{cat} by executing the command @samp{cat file}.  However,
@dfn{special built-in utilities} like @command{exit} cannot be invoked
this way.  For example, the command @samp{nice exit} does not have a
well-defined behavior: it may generate an error message instead of
exiting.

Here is a list of the special built-in utilities that are standardized
by @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2004.

@quotation
@t{.@: : break continue eval exec exit export readonly
return set shift times trap unset}
@end quotation

For example, because @samp{.}, @samp{:}, and @samp{exec} are special,
the commands @samp{nice . foo.sh}, @samp{nice :}, and @samp{nice exec
pwd} do not work as you might expect.

Many shells extend this list.  For example, Bash has several extra
special built-in utilities like @command{history}, and
@command{suspend}, and with Bash the command @samp{nice suspend}
generates an error message instead of suspending.

@node Standards conformance
@section Standards conformance

@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
In a few cases, the @sc{gnu} utilities' default behavior is
incompatible with the @acronym{POSIX} standard.  To suppress these
incompatibilities, define the @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment
variable.  Unless you are checking for @acronym{POSIX} conformance, you
probably do not need to define @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT}.

Newer versions of @acronym{POSIX} are occasionally incompatible with older
versions.  For example, older versions of @acronym{POSIX} required the
command @samp{sort +1} to sort based on the second and succeeding
fields in each input line, but starting with @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001
the same command is required to sort the file named @file{+1}, and you
must instead use the command @samp{sort -k 2} to get the field-based
sort.

@vindex _POSIX2_VERSION
The @sc{gnu} utilities normally conform to the version of @acronym{POSIX}
that is standard for your system.  To cause them to conform to a
different version of @acronym{POSIX}, define the @env{_POSIX2_VERSION}
environment variable to a value of the form @var{yyyymm} specifying
the year and month the standard was adopted.  Two values are currently
supported for @env{_POSIX2_VERSION}: @samp{199209} stands for
@acronym{POSIX} 1003.2-1992, and @samp{200112} stands for @acronym{POSIX}
1003.1-2001.  For example, if you have a newer system but are running software
that assumes an older version of @acronym{POSIX} and uses @samp{sort +1}
or @samp{tail +10}, you can work around any compatibility problems by setting
@samp{_POSIX2_VERSION=199209} in your environment.

@node Output of entire files
@chapter Output of entire files

@cindex output of entire files
@cindex entire files, output of

These commands read and write entire files, possibly transforming them
in some way.

@menu
* cat invocation::              Concatenate and write files.
* tac invocation::              Concatenate and write files in reverse.
* nl invocation::               Number lines and write files.
* od invocation::               Write files in octal or other formats.
* base64 invocation::           Transform data into printable data.
@end menu

@node cat invocation
@section @command{cat}: Concatenate and write files

@pindex cat
@cindex concatenate and write files
@cindex copying files

@command{cat} copies each @var{file} (@samp{-} means standard input), or
standard input if none are given, to standard output.  Synopsis:

@example
cat [@var{option}] [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -A
@itemx --show-all
@opindex -A
@opindex --show-all
Equivalent to @option{-vET}.

@item -b
@itemx --number-nonblank
@opindex -b
@opindex --number-nonblank
Number all nonblank output lines, starting with 1.

@item -e
@opindex -e
Equivalent to @option{-vE}.

@item -E
@itemx --show-ends
@opindex -E
@opindex --show-ends
Display a @samp{$} after the end of each line.

@item -n
@itemx --number
@opindex -n
@opindex --number
Number all output lines, starting with 1.

@item -s
@itemx --squeeze-blank
@opindex -s
@opindex --squeeze-blank
@cindex squeezing blank lines
Replace multiple adjacent blank lines with a single blank line.

@item -t
@opindex -t
Equivalent to @option{-vT}.

@item -T
@itemx --show-tabs
@opindex -T
@opindex --show-tabs
Display TAB characters as @samp{^I}.

@item -u
@opindex -u
Ignored; for @acronym{POSIX} compatibility.

@item -v
@itemx --show-nonprinting
@opindex -v
@opindex --show-nonprinting
Display control characters except for LFD and TAB using
@samp{^} notation and precede characters that have the high bit set with
@samp{M-}.

@end table

On systems like MS-DOS that distinguish between text and binary files,
@command{cat} normally reads and writes in binary mode.  However,
@command{cat} reads in text mode if one of the options
@option{-bensAE} is used or if @command{cat} is reading from standard
input and standard input is a terminal.  Similarly, @command{cat}
writes in text mode if one of the options @option{-bensAE} is used or
if standard output is a terminal.

@exitstatus

Examples:

@smallexample
# Output f's contents, then standard input, then g's contents.
cat f - g

# Copy standard input to standard output.
cat
@end smallexample


@node tac invocation
@section @command{tac}: Concatenate and write files in reverse

@pindex tac
@cindex reversing files

@command{tac} copies each @var{file} (@samp{-} means standard input), or
standard input if none are given, to standard output, reversing the
records (lines by default) in each separately.  Synopsis:

@example
tac [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@dfn{Records} are separated by instances of a string (newline by
default).  By default, this separator string is attached to the end of
the record that it follows in the file.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -b
@itemx --before
@opindex -b
@opindex --before
The separator is attached to the beginning of the record that it
precedes in the file.

@item -r
@itemx --regex
@opindex -r
@opindex --regex
Treat the separator string as a regular expression.  Users of @command{tac}
on MS-DOS/MS-Windows should note that, since @command{tac} reads files in
binary mode, each line of a text file might end with a CR/LF pair
instead of the Unix-style LF.

@item -s @var{separator}
@itemx --separator=@var{separator}
@opindex -s
@opindex --separator
Use @var{separator} as the record separator, instead of newline.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node nl invocation
@section @command{nl}: Number lines and write files

@pindex nl
@cindex numbering lines
@cindex line numbering

@command{nl} writes each @var{file} (@samp{-} means standard input), or
standard input if none are given, to standard output, with line numbers
added to some or all of the lines.  Synopsis:

@example
nl [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@cindex logical pages, numbering on
@command{nl} decomposes its input into (logical) pages; by default, the
line number is reset to 1 at the top of each logical page.  @command{nl}
treats all of the input files as a single document; it does not reset
line numbers or logical pages between files.

@cindex headers, numbering
@cindex body, numbering
@cindex footers, numbering
A logical page consists of three sections: header, body, and footer.
Any of the sections can be empty.  Each can be numbered in a different
style from the others.

The beginnings of the sections of logical pages are indicated in the
input file by a line containing exactly one of these delimiter strings:

@table @samp
@item \:\:\:
start of header;
@item \:\:
start of body;
@item \:
start of footer.
@end table

The two characters from which these strings are made can be changed from
@samp{\} and @samp{:} via options (see below), but the pattern and
length of each string cannot be changed.

A section delimiter is replaced by an empty line on output.  Any text
that comes before the first section delimiter string in the input file
is considered to be part of a body section, so @command{nl} treats a
file that contains no section delimiters as a single body section.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -b @var{style}
@itemx --body-numbering=@var{style}
@opindex -b
@opindex --body-numbering
Select the numbering style for lines in the body section of each
logical page.  When a line is not numbered, the current line number
is not incremented, but the line number separator character is still
prepended to the line.  The styles are:

@table @samp
@item a
number all lines,
@item t
number only nonempty lines (default for body),
@item n
do not number lines (default for header and footer),
@item p@var{bre}
number only lines that contain a match for the basic regular
expression @var{bre}.
@xref{Regular Expressions, , Regular Expressions, grep, The GNU Grep Manual}.
@end table

@item -d @var{cd}
@itemx --section-delimiter=@var{cd}
@opindex -d
@opindex --section-delimiter
@cindex section delimiters of pages
Set the section delimiter characters to @var{cd}; default is
@samp{\:}.  If only @var{c} is given, the second remains @samp{:}.
(Remember to protect @samp{\} or other metacharacters from shell
expansion with quotes or extra backslashes.)

@item -f @var{style}
@itemx --footer-numbering=@var{style}
@opindex -f
@opindex --footer-numbering
Analogous to @option{--body-numbering}.

@item -h @var{style}
@itemx --header-numbering=@var{style}
@opindex -h
@opindex --header-numbering
Analogous to @option{--body-numbering}.

@item -i @var{number}
@itemx --page-increment=@var{number}
@opindex -i
@opindex --page-increment
Increment line numbers by @var{number} (default 1).

@item -l @var{number}
@itemx --join-blank-lines=@var{number}
@opindex -l
@opindex --join-blank-lines
@cindex empty lines, numbering
@cindex blank lines, numbering
Consider @var{number} (default 1) consecutive empty lines to be one
logical line for numbering, and only number the last one.  Where fewer
than @var{number} consecutive empty lines occur, do not number them.
An empty line is one that contains no characters, not even spaces
or tabs.

@item -n @var{format}
@itemx --number-format=@var{format}
@opindex -n
@opindex --number-format
Select the line numbering format (default is @code{rn}):

@table @samp
@item ln
@opindex ln @r{format for @command{nl}}
left justified, no leading zeros;
@item rn
@opindex rn @r{format for @command{nl}}
right justified, no leading zeros;
@item rz
@opindex rz @r{format for @command{nl}}
right justified, leading zeros.
@end table

@item -p
@itemx --no-renumber
@opindex -p
@opindex --no-renumber
Do not reset the line number at the start of a logical page.

@item -s @var{string}
@itemx --number-separator=@var{string}
@opindex -s
@opindex --number-separator
Separate the line number from the text line in the output with
@var{string} (default is the TAB character).

@item -v @var{number}
@itemx --starting-line-number=@var{number}
@opindex -v
@opindex --starting-line-number
Set the initial line number on each logical page to @var{number} (default 1).

@item -w @var{number}
@itemx --number-width=@var{number}
@opindex -w
@opindex --number-width
Use @var{number} characters for line numbers (default 6).

@end table

@exitstatus


@node od invocation
@section @command{od}: Write files in octal or other formats

@pindex od
@cindex octal dump of files
@cindex hex dump of files
@cindex ASCII dump of files
@cindex file contents, dumping unambiguously

@command{od} writes an unambiguous representation of each @var{file}
(@samp{-} means standard input), or standard input if none are given.
Synopses:

@smallexample
od [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
od [-abcdfilosx]@dots{} [@var{file}] [[+]@var{offset}[.][b]]
od [@var{option}]@dots{} --traditional [@var{file}] [[+]@var{offset}[.][b] [[+]@var{label}[.][b]]]
@end smallexample

Each line of output consists of the offset in the input, followed by
groups of data from the file.  By default, @command{od} prints the offset in
octal, and each group of file data is a C @code{short int}'s worth of input
printed as a single octal number.

If @var{offset} is given, it specifies how many input bytes to skip
before formatting and writing.  By default, it is interpreted as an
octal number, but the optional trailing decimal point causes it to be
interpreted as decimal.  If no decimal is specified and the offset
begins with @samp{0x} or @samp{0X} it is interpreted as a hexadecimal
number.  If there is a trailing @samp{b}, the number of bytes skipped
will be @var{offset} multiplied by 512.

If a command is of both the first and second forms, the second form is
assumed if the last operand begins with @samp{+} or (if there are two
operands) a digit.  For example, in @samp{od foo 10} and @samp{od +10}
the @samp{10} is an offset, whereas in @samp{od 10} the @samp{10} is a
file name.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -A @var{radix}
@itemx --address-radix=@var{radix}
@opindex -A
@opindex --address-radix
@cindex radix for file offsets
@cindex file offset radix
Select the base in which file offsets are printed.  @var{radix} can
be one of the following:

@table @samp
@item d
decimal;
@item o
octal;
@item x
hexadecimal;
@item n
none (do not print offsets).
@end table

The default is octal.

@item -j @var{bytes}
@itemx --skip-bytes=@var{bytes}
@opindex -j
@opindex --skip-bytes
Skip @var{bytes} input bytes before formatting and writing.  If
@var{bytes} begins with @samp{0x} or @samp{0X}, it is interpreted in
hexadecimal; otherwise, if it begins with @samp{0}, in octal; otherwise,
in decimal.  Appending @samp{b} multiplies @var{bytes} by 512, @samp{k}
by 1024, and @samp{m} by 1048576.

@item -N @var{bytes}
@itemx --read-bytes=@var{bytes}
@opindex -N
@opindex --read-bytes
Output at most @var{bytes} bytes of the input.  Prefixes and suffixes on
@code{bytes} are interpreted as for the @option{-j} option.

@item -S @var{n}
@itemx --strings[=@var{n}]
@opindex -S
@opindex --strings
@cindex string constants, outputting
Instead of the normal output, output only @dfn{string constants}: at
least @var{n} consecutive @acronym{ASCII} graphic characters,
followed by a null (zero) byte.

If @var{n} is omitted with @option{--strings}, the default is 3.

@item -t @var{type}
@itemx --format=@var{type}
@opindex -t
@opindex --format
Select the format in which to output the file data.  @var{type} is a
string of one or more of the below type indicator characters.  If you
include more than one type indicator character in a single @var{type}
string, or use this option more than once, @command{od} writes one copy
of each output line using each of the data types that you specified,
in the order that you specified.

Adding a trailing ``z'' to any type specification appends a display
of the @acronym{ASCII} character representation of the printable characters
to the output line generated by the type specification.

@table @samp
@item a
named character, ignoring high-order bit
@item c
@acronym{ASCII} character or backslash escape,
@item d
signed decimal
@item f
floating point
@item o
octal
@item u
unsigned decimal
@item x
hexadecimal
@end table

The type @code{a} outputs things like @samp{sp} for space, @samp{nl} for
newline, and @samp{nul} for a null (zero) byte.  Only the least significant
seven bits of each byte is used; the high-order bit is ignored.
Type @code{c} outputs
@samp{ }, @samp{\n}, and @code{\0}, respectively.

@cindex type size
Except for types @samp{a} and @samp{c}, you can specify the number
of bytes to use in interpreting each number in the given data type
by following the type indicator character with a decimal integer.
Alternately, you can specify the size of one of the C compiler's
built-in data types by following the type indicator character with
one of the following characters.  For integers (@samp{d}, @samp{o},
@samp{u}, @samp{x}):

@table @samp
@item C
char
@item S
short
@item I
int
@item L
long
@end table

For floating point (@code{f}):

@table @asis
@item F
float
@item D
double
@item L
long double
@end table

@item -v
@itemx --output-duplicates
@opindex -v
@opindex --output-duplicates
Output consecutive lines that are identical.  By default, when two or
more consecutive output lines would be identical, @command{od} outputs only
the first line, and puts just an asterisk on the following line to
indicate the elision.

@item -w[@var{n}]
@itemx --width[=@var{n}]
@opindex -w
@opindex --width
Dump @code{n} input bytes per output line.  This must be a multiple of
the least common multiple of the sizes associated with the specified
output types.

If this option is not given at all, the default is 16.  If @var{n} is
omitted, the default is 32.

@end table

The next several options are shorthands for format specifications.
@sc{gnu} @command{od} accepts any combination of shorthands and format
specification options.  These options accumulate.

@table @samp

@item -a
@opindex -a
Output as named characters.  Equivalent to @samp{-t a}.

@item -b
@opindex -b
Output as octal bytes.  Equivalent to @samp{-t o1}.

@item -c
@opindex -c
Output as @acronym{ASCII} characters or backslash escapes.  Equivalent to
@samp{-t c}.

@item -d
@opindex -d
Output as unsigned decimal two-byte units.  Equivalent to @samp{-t u2}.

@item -f
@opindex -f
Output as floats.  Equivalent to @samp{-t fF}.

@item -i
@opindex -i
Output as decimal ints.  Equivalent to @samp{-t dI}.

@item -l
@opindex -l
Output as decimal long ints.  Equivalent to @samp{-t dL}.

@item -o
@opindex -o
Output as octal two-byte units.  Equivalent to @option{-t o2}.

@item -s
@opindex -s
Output as decimal two-byte units.  Equivalent to @option{-t d2}.

@item -x
@opindex -x
Output as hexadecimal two-byte units.  Equivalent to @samp{-t x2}.

@item --traditional
@opindex --traditional
Recognize the non-option label argument that traditional @command{od}
accepted.  The following syntax:

@smallexample
od --traditional [@var{file}] [[+]@var{offset}[.][b] [[+]@var{label}[.][b]]]
@end smallexample

@noindent
can be used to specify at most one file and optional arguments
specifying an offset and a pseudo-start address, @var{label}.
The @var{label} argument is interpreted
just like @var{offset}, but it specifies an initial pseudo-address.  The
pseudo-addresses are displayed in parentheses following any normal
address.

@end table

@exitstatus

@node base64 invocation
@section @command{base64}: Transform data into printable data.

@pindex base64
@cindex base64 encoding

@command{base64} transforms data read from a file, or standard input,
into (or from) base64 encoded form.  The base64 encoded form uses
printable @acronym{ASCII} characters to represent binary data, see
@uref{ftp://ftp.rfc-editor.org/in-notes/rfc3548.txt, RFC 3548}.
Synopses:

@smallexample
base64 [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]
base64 --decode [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]
@end smallexample

The base64 encoding expands data to roughly 133% of the original.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -w @var{COLS}
@itemx --wrap=@var{COLS}
@opindex -w
@opindex --wrap
@cindex wrap data
@cindex column to wrap data after
During encoding, wrap lines after @var{COLS} characters.  This must be
a positive number.

The default is to wrap after 76 characters.  Use the value 0 to
disable line wrapping altogether.

@item -d
@itemx --decode
@opindex -d
@opindex --decode
@cindex Decode base64 data
@cindex Base64 decoding
Change the mode of operation, from the default of encoding data, to
decoding data.  Input is expected to be base64 encoded data, and the
output will be the original data.

@item -i
@itemx --ignore-garbage
@opindex -i
@opindex --ignore-garbage
@cindex Ignore garbage in base64 stream
When decoding, newlines are always accepted.
During decoding, ignore unrecognized bytes,
to permit distorted data to be decoded.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node Formatting file contents
@chapter Formatting file contents

@cindex formatting file contents

These commands reformat the contents of files.

@menu
* fmt invocation::              Reformat paragraph text.
* pr invocation::               Paginate or columnate files for printing.
* fold invocation::             Wrap input lines to fit in specified width.
@end menu


@node fmt invocation
@section @command{fmt}: Reformat paragraph text

@pindex fmt
@cindex reformatting paragraph text
@cindex paragraphs, reformatting
@cindex text, reformatting

@command{fmt} fills and joins lines to produce output lines of (at most)
a given number of characters (75 by default).  Synopsis:

@example
fmt [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@command{fmt} reads from the specified @var{file} arguments (or standard
input if none are given), and writes to standard output.

By default, blank lines, spaces between words, and indentation are
preserved in the output; successive input lines with different
indentation are not joined; tabs are expanded on input and introduced on
output.

@cindex line-breaking
@cindex sentences and line-breaking
@cindex Knuth, Donald E.
@cindex Plass, Michael F.
@command{fmt} prefers breaking lines at the end of a sentence, and tries to
avoid line breaks after the first word of a sentence or before the last
word of a sentence.  A @dfn{sentence break} is defined as either the end
of a paragraph or a word ending in any of @samp{.?!}, followed by two
spaces or end of line, ignoring any intervening parentheses or quotes.
Like @TeX{}, @command{fmt} reads entire ``paragraphs'' before choosing line
breaks; the algorithm is a variant of that given by Donald E. Knuth
and Michael F. Plass in ``Breaking Paragraphs Into Lines'',
@cite{Software---Practice & Experience} @b{11}, 11 (November 1981),
1119--1184.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -c
@itemx --crown-margin
@opindex -c
@opindex --crown-margin
@cindex crown margin
@dfn{Crown margin} mode: preserve the indentation of the first two
lines within a paragraph, and align the left margin of each subsequent
line with that of the second line.

@item -t
@itemx --tagged-paragraph
@opindex -t
@opindex --tagged-paragraph
@cindex tagged paragraphs
@dfn{Tagged paragraph} mode: like crown margin mode, except that if
indentation of the first line of a paragraph is the same as the
indentation of the second, the first line is treated as a one-line
paragraph.

@item -s
@itemx --split-only
@opindex -s
@opindex --split-only
Split lines only.  Do not join short lines to form longer ones.  This
prevents sample lines of code, and other such ``formatted'' text from
being unduly combined.

@item -u
@itemx --uniform-spacing
@opindex -u
@opindex --uniform-spacing
Uniform spacing.  Reduce spacing between words to one space, and spacing
between sentences to two spaces.

@item -@var{width}
@itemx -w @var{width}
@itemx --width=@var{width}
@opindex -@var{width}
@opindex -w
@opindex --width
Fill output lines up to @var{width} characters (default 75).  @command{fmt}
initially tries to make lines about 7% shorter than this, to give it
room to balance line lengths.

@item -p @var{prefix}
@itemx --prefix=@var{prefix}
Only lines beginning with @var{prefix} (possibly preceded by whitespace)
are subject to formatting.  The prefix and any preceding whitespace are
stripped for the formatting and then re-attached to each formatted output
line.  One use is to format certain kinds of program comments, while
leaving the code unchanged.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node pr invocation
@section @command{pr}: Paginate or columnate files for printing

@pindex pr
@cindex printing, preparing files for
@cindex multicolumn output, generating
@cindex merging files in parallel

@command{pr} writes each @var{file} (@samp{-} means standard input), or
standard input if none are given, to standard output, paginating and
optionally outputting in multicolumn format; optionally merges all
@var{file}s, printing all in parallel, one per column.  Synopsis:

@example
pr [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@vindex LC_MESSAGES
By default, a 5-line header is printed at each page: two blank lines;
a line with the date, the file name, and the page count; and two more
blank lines.  A footer of five blank lines is also printed.
With the @option{-F}
option, a 3-line header is printed: the leading two blank lines are
omitted; no footer is used.  The default @var{page_length} in both cases is 66
lines.  The default number of text lines changes from 56 (without @option{-F})
to 63 (with @option{-F}).  The text line of the header takes the form
@samp{@var{date} @var{string} @var{page}}, with spaces inserted around
@var{string} so that the line takes up the full @var{page_width}.  Here,
@var{date} is the date (see the @option{-D} or @option{--date-format}
option for details), @var{string} is the centered header string, and
@var{page} identifies the page number.  The @env{LC_MESSAGES} locale
category affects the spelling of @var{page}; in the default C locale, it
is @samp{Page @var{number}} where @var{number} is the decimal page
number.

Form feeds in the input cause page breaks in the output.  Multiple form
feeds produce empty pages.

Columns are of equal width, separated by an optional string (default
is @samp{space}).  For multicolumn output, lines will always be truncated to
@var{page_width} (default 72), unless you use the @option{-J} option.
For single
column output no line truncation occurs by default.  Use @option{-W} option to
truncate lines in that case.

The following changes were made in version 1.22i and apply to later
versions of @command{pr}:
@c FIXME: this whole section here sounds very awkward to me. I
@c made a few small changes, but really it all needs to be redone. - Brian
@c OK, I fixed another sentence or two, but some of it I just don't understand.
@ - Brian
@itemize @bullet

@item
Some small @var{letter options} (@option{-s}, @option{-w}) have been
redefined for better @acronym{POSIX} compliance.  The output of some further
cases has been adapted to other Unix systems.  These changes are not
compatible with earlier versions of the program.

@item
Some @var{new capital letter} options (@option{-J}, @option{-S}, @option{-W})
have been introduced to turn off unexpected interferences of small letter
options.  The @option{-N} option and the second argument @var{last_page}
of @samp{+FIRST_PAGE} offer more flexibility.  The detailed handling of
form feeds set in the input files requires the @option{-T} option.

@item
Capital letter options override small letter ones.

@item
Some of the option-arguments (compare @option{-s}, @option{-e},
@option{-i}, @option{-n}) cannot be specified as separate arguments from the
preceding option letter (already stated in the @acronym{POSIX} specification).
@end itemize

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item +@var{first_page}[:@var{last_page}]
@itemx --pages=@var{first_page}[:@var{last_page}]
@c The two following @opindex lines evoke warnings because they contain `:'
@c The `info' spec does not permit that.  If we use those lines, we end
@c up with truncated index entries that don't work.
@c @opindex +@var{first_page}[:@var{last_page}]
@c @opindex --pages=@var{first_page}[:@var{last_page}]
@opindex +@var{page_range}
@opindex --pages=@var{page_range}
Begin printing with page @var{first_page} and stop with @var{last_page}.
Missing @samp{:@var{last_page}} implies end of file.  While estimating
the number of skipped pages each form feed in the input file results
in a new page.  Page counting with and without @samp{+@var{first_page}}
is identical.  By default, counting starts with the first page of input
file (not first page printed).  Line numbering may be altered by @option{-N}
option.

@item -@var{column}
@itemx --columns=@var{column}
@opindex -@var{column}
@opindex --columns
@cindex down columns
With each single @var{file}, produce @var{column} columns of output
(default is 1) and print columns down, unless @option{-a} is used.  The
column width is automatically decreased as @var{column} increases; unless
you use the @option{-W/-w} option to increase @var{page_width} as well.
This option might well cause some lines to be truncated.  The number of
lines in the columns on each page are balanced.  The options @option{-e}
and @option{-i} are on for multiple text-column output.  Together with
@option{-J} option column alignment and line truncation is turned off.
Lines of full length are joined in a free field format and @option{-S}
option may set field separators.  @option{-@var{column}} may not be used
with @option{-m} option.

@item -a
@itemx --across
@opindex -a
@opindex --across
@cindex across columns
With each single @var{file}, print columns across rather than down.  The
@option{-@var{column}} option must be given with @var{column} greater than one.
If a line is too long to fit in a column, it is truncated.

@item -c
@itemx --show-control-chars
@opindex -c
@opindex --show-control-chars
Print control characters using hat notation (e.g., @samp{^G}); print
other nonprinting characters in octal backslash notation.  By default,
nonprinting characters are not changed.

@item -d
@itemx --double-space
@opindex -d
@opindex --double-space
@cindex double spacing
Double space the output.

@item -D @var{format}
@itemx --date-format=@var{format}
@cindex time formats
@cindex formatting times
Format header dates using @var{format}, using the same conventions as
for the command @samp{date +@var{format}}; @xref{date invocation}.
Except for directives, which start with
@samp{%}, characters in @var{format} are printed unchanged.  You can use
this option to specify an arbitrary string in place of the header date,
e.g., @option{--date-format="Monday morning"}.

@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
@vindex LC_TIME
Normally the date
format defaults to @samp{%Y-%m-%d %H:%M} (for example, @samp{2001-12-04
23:59}); but if the @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment variable is set
and the @env{LC_TIME} locale category specifies the @acronym{POSIX}
locale, the default is @samp{%b %e %H:%M %Y} (for example,
@samp{Dec@ @ 4 23:59 2001}.

@vindex TZ
Time stamps are listed according to the time zone rules specified by
the @env{TZ} environment variable, or by the system default rules if
@env{TZ} is not set.  @xref{TZ Variable,, Specifying the Time Zone
with @env{TZ}, libc, The GNU C Library}.

@item -e[@var{in-tabchar}[@var{in-tabwidth}]]
@itemx --expand-tabs[=@var{in-tabchar}[@var{in-tabwidth}]]
@opindex -e
@opindex --expand-tabs
@cindex input tabs
Expand @var{tab}s to spaces on input.  Optional argument @var{in-tabchar} is
the input tab character (default is the TAB character).  Second optional
argument @var{in-tabwidth} is the input tab character's width (default
is 8).

@item -f
@itemx -F
@itemx --form-feed
@opindex -F
@opindex -f
@opindex --form-feed
Use a form feed instead of newlines to separate output pages.  The default
page length of 66 lines is not altered.  But the number of lines of text
per page changes from default 56 to 63 lines.

@item -h @var{HEADER}
@itemx --header=@var{HEADER}
@opindex -h
@opindex --header
Replace the file name in the header with the centered string @var{header}.
When using the shell, @var{header} should be quoted and should be
separated from @option{-h} by a space.

@item -i[@var{out-tabchar}[@var{out-tabwidth}]]
@itemx --output-tabs[=@var{out-tabchar}[@var{out-tabwidth}]]
@opindex -i
@opindex --output-tabs
@cindex output tabs
Replace spaces with @var{tab}s on output.  Optional argument @var{out-tabchar}
is the output tab character (default is the TAB character).  Second optional
argument @var{out-tabwidth} is the output tab character's width (default
is 8).

@item -J
@itemx --join-lines
@opindex -J
@opindex --join-lines
Merge lines of full length.  Used together with the column options
@option{-@var{column}}, @option{-a -@var{column}} or @option{-m}.  Turns off
@option{-W/-w} line truncation;
no column alignment used; may be used with
@option{--sep-string[=@var{string}]}.  @option{-J} has been introduced
(together with @option{-W} and @option{--sep-string})
to disentangle the old (@acronym{POSIX}-compliant) options @option{-w} and
@option{-s} along with the three column options.


@item -l @var{page_length}
@itemx --length=@var{page_length}
@opindex -l
@opindex --length
Set the page length to @var{page_length} (default 66) lines, including
the lines of the header [and the footer].  If @var{page_length} is less
than or equal to 10 (or <= 3 with @option{-F}), the header and footer are
omitted, and all form feeds set in input files are eliminated, as if
the @option{-T} option had been given.

@item -m
@itemx --merge
@opindex -m
@opindex --merge
Merge and print all @var{file}s in parallel, one in each column.  If a
line is too long to fit in a column, it is truncated, unless the @option{-J}
option is used.  @option{--sep-string[=@var{string}]} may be used.
Empty pages in
some @var{file}s (form feeds set) produce empty columns, still marked
by @var{string}.  The result is a continuous line numbering and column
marking throughout the whole merged file.  Completely empty merged pages
show no separators or line numbers.  The default header becomes
@samp{@var{date} @var{page}} with spaces inserted in the middle; this
may be used with the @option{-h} or @option{--header} option to fill up
the middle blank part.

@item -n[@var{number-separator}[@var{digits}]]
@itemx --number-lines[=@var{number-separator}[@var{digits}]]
@opindex -n
@opindex --number-lines
Provide @var{digits} digit line numbering (default for @var{digits} is
5).  With multicolumn output the number occupies the first @var{digits}
column positions of each text column or only each line of @option{-m}
output.  With single column output the number precedes each line just as
@option{-m} does.  Default counting of the line numbers starts with the
first line of the input file (not the first line printed, compare the
@option{--page} option and @option{-N} option).
Optional argument @var{number-separator} is the character appended to
the line number to separate it from the text followed.  The default
separator is the TAB character.  In a strict sense a TAB is always
printed with single column output only.  The @var{TAB}-width varies
with the @var{TAB}-position, e.g., with the left @var{margin} specified
by @option{-o} option.  With multicolumn output priority is given to
@samp{equal width of output columns} (a @acronym{POSIX} specification).
The @var{TAB}-width is fixed to the value of the first column and does
not change with different values of left @var{margin}.  That means a
fixed number of spaces is always printed in the place of the
@var{number-separator tab}.  The tabification depends upon the output
position.

@item -N @var{line_number}
@itemx --first-line-number=@var{line_number}
@opindex -N
@opindex --first-line-number
Start line counting with the number @var{line_number} at first line of
first page printed (in most cases not the first line of the input file).

@item -o @var{margin}
@itemx --indent=@var{margin}
@opindex -o
@opindex --indent
@cindex indenting lines
@cindex left margin
Indent each line with a margin @var{margin} spaces wide (default is zero).
The total page width is the size of the margin plus the @var{page_width}
set with the @option{-W/-w} option.  A limited overflow may occur with
numbered single column output (compare @option{-n} option).

@item -r
@itemx --no-file-warnings
@opindex -r
@opindex --no-file-warnings
Do not print a warning message when an argument @var{file} cannot be
opened.  (The exit status will still be nonzero, however.)

@item -s[@var{char}]
@itemx --separator[=@var{char}]
@opindex -s
@opindex --separator
Separate columns by a single character @var{char}.  The default for
@var{char} is the TAB character without @option{-w} and @samp{no
character} with @option{-w}.  Without @option{-s} the default separator
@samp{space} is set.  @option{-s[char]} turns off line truncation of all
three column options (@option{-COLUMN}|@option{-a -COLUMN}|@option{-m}) unless
@option{-w} is set.  This is a @acronym{POSIX}-compliant formulation.


@item -S@var{string}
@itemx --sep-string[=@var{string}]
@opindex -S
@opindex --sep-string
Use @var{string} to separate output columns.  The @option{-S} option doesn't
affect the @option{-W/-w} option, unlike the @option{-s} option which does.  It
does not affect line truncation or column alignment.
Without @option{-S}, and with @option{-J}, @command{pr} uses the default output
separator, TAB@.
Without @option{-S} or @option{-J}, @command{pr} uses a @samp{space}
(same as @option{-S"@w{ }"}).  @option{--sep-string} with no
@samp{=@var{string}} is equivalent to @option{--sep-string=""}.

@item -t
@itemx --omit-header
@opindex -t
@opindex --omit-header
Do not print the usual header [and footer] on each page, and do not fill
out the bottom of pages (with blank lines or a form feed).  No page
structure is produced, but form feeds set in the input files are retained.
The predefined pagination is not changed.  @option{-t} or @option{-T} may be
useful together with other options; e.g.: @option{-t -e4}, expand TAB characters
in the input file to 4 spaces but don't make any other changes.  Use of
@option{-t} overrides @option{-h}.

@item -T
@itemx --omit-pagination
@opindex -T
@opindex --omit-pagination
Do not print header [and footer].  In addition eliminate all form feeds
set in the input files.

@item -v
@itemx --show-nonprinting
@opindex -v
@opindex --show-nonprinting
Print nonprinting characters in octal backslash notation.

@item -w @var{page_width}
@itemx --width=@var{page_width}
@opindex -w
@opindex --width
Set page width to @var{page_width} characters for multiple text-column
output only (default for @var{page_width} is 72).  @option{-s[CHAR]} turns
off the default page width and any line truncation and column alignment.
Lines of full length are merged, regardless of the column options
set.  No @var{page_width} setting is possible with single column output.
A @acronym{POSIX}-compliant formulation.

@item -W @var{page_width}
@itemx --page_width=@var{page_width}
@opindex -W
@opindex --page_width
Set the page width to @var{page_width} characters.  That's valid with and
without a column option.  Text lines are truncated, unless @option{-J}
is used.  Together with one of the three column options
(@option{-@var{column}}, @option{-a -@var{column}} or @option{-m}) column
alignment is always used.  The separator options @option{-S} or @option{-s}
don't affect the @option{-W} option.  Default is 72 characters.  Without
@option{-W @var{page_width}} and without any of the column options NO line
truncation is used (defined to keep downward compatibility and to meet
most frequent tasks).  That's equivalent to @option{-W 72 -J}.  The header
line is never truncated.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node fold invocation
@section @command{fold}: Wrap input lines to fit in specified width

@pindex fold
@cindex wrapping long input lines
@cindex folding long input lines

@command{fold} writes each @var{file} (@option{-} means standard input), or
standard input if none are given, to standard output, breaking long
lines.  Synopsis:

@example
fold [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

By default, @command{fold} breaks lines wider than 80 columns.  The output
is split into as many lines as necessary.

@cindex screen columns
@command{fold} counts screen columns by default; thus, a tab may count more
than one column, backspace decreases the column count, and carriage
return sets the column to zero.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -b
@itemx --bytes
@opindex -b
@opindex --bytes
Count bytes rather than columns, so that tabs, backspaces, and carriage
returns are each counted as taking up one column, just like other
characters.

@item -s
@itemx --spaces
@opindex -s
@opindex --spaces
Break at word boundaries: the line is broken after the last blank before
the maximum line length.  If the line contains no such blanks, the line
is broken at the maximum line length as usual.

@item -w @var{width}
@itemx --width=@var{width}
@opindex -w
@opindex --width
Use a maximum line length of @var{width} columns instead of 80.

For compatibility @command{fold} supports an obsolete option syntax
@option{-@var{width}}.  New scripts should use @option{-w @var{width}}
instead.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node Output of parts of files
@chapter Output of parts of files

@cindex output of parts of files
@cindex parts of files, output of

These commands output pieces of the input.

@menu
* head invocation::             Output the first part of files.
* tail invocation::             Output the last part of files.
* split invocation::            Split a file into fixed-size pieces.
* csplit invocation::           Split a file into context-determined pieces.
@end menu

@node head invocation
@section @command{head}: Output the first part of files

@pindex head
@cindex initial part of files, outputting
@cindex first part of files, outputting

@command{head} prints the first part (10 lines by default) of each
@var{file}; it reads from standard input if no files are given or
when given a @var{file} of @option{-}.  Synopsis:

@example
head [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

If more than one @var{file} is specified, @command{head} prints a
one-line header consisting of:

@example
==> @var{file name} <==
@end example

@noindent
before the output for each @var{file}.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -c @var{n}
@itemx --bytes=@var{n}
@opindex -c
@opindex --bytes
Print the first @var{n} bytes, instead of initial lines.  Appending
@samp{b} multiplies @var{n} by 512, @samp{k} by 1024, and @samp{m}
by 1048576.
However, if @var{n} starts with a @samp{-},
print all but the last @var{n} bytes of each file.

@itemx -n @var{n}
@itemx --lines=@var{n}
@opindex -n
@opindex --lines
Output the first @var{n} lines.
However, if @var{n} starts with a @samp{-},
print all but the last @var{n} lines of each file.

@item -q
@itemx --quiet
@itemx --silent
@opindex -q
@opindex --quiet
@opindex --silent
Never print file name headers.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Always print file name headers.

@end table

For compatibility @command{head} also supports an obsolete option syntax
@option{-@var{count}@var{options}}, which is recognized only if it is
specified first.  @var{count} is a decimal number optionally followed
by a size letter (@samp{b}, @samp{k}, @samp{m}) as in @option{-c}, or
@samp{l} to mean count by lines, or other option letters (@samp{cqv}).
Scripts intended for standard hosts should use @option{-c @var{count}}
or @option{-n @var{count}} instead.  If your script must also run on
hosts that support only the obsolete syntax, it is usually simpler to
avoid @command{head}, e.g., by using @samp{sed 5q} instead of
@samp{head -5}.

@exitstatus


@node tail invocation
@section @command{tail}: Output the last part of files

@pindex tail
@cindex last part of files, outputting

@command{tail} prints the last part (10 lines by default) of each
@var{file}; it reads from standard input if no files are given or
when given a @var{file} of @samp{-}.  Synopsis:

@example
tail [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

If more than one @var{file} is specified, @command{tail} prints a
one-line header consisting of:

@example
==> @var{file name} <==
@end example

@noindent
before the output for each @var{file}.

@cindex BSD @command{tail}
@sc{gnu} @command{tail} can output any amount of data (some other versions of
@command{tail} cannot).  It also has no @option{-r} option (print in
reverse), since reversing a file is really a different job from printing
the end of a file; BSD @command{tail} (which is the one with @option{-r}) can
only reverse files that are at most as large as its buffer, which is
typically 32 KiB@.  A more reliable and versatile way to reverse files is
the @sc{gnu} @command{tac} command.

If any option-argument is a number @var{n} starting with a @samp{+},
@command{tail} begins printing with the @var{n}th item from the start of
each file, instead of from the end.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -c @var{bytes}
@itemx --bytes=@var{bytes}
@opindex -c
@opindex --bytes
Output the last @var{bytes} bytes, instead of final lines.  Appending
@samp{b} multiplies @var{bytes} by 512, @samp{k} by 1024, and @samp{m}
by 1048576.

@item -f
@itemx --follow[=@var{how}]
@opindex -f
@opindex --follow
@cindex growing files
@vindex name @r{follow option}
@vindex descriptor @r{follow option}
Loop forever trying to read more characters at the end of the file,
presumably because the file is growing.
If more than one file is given, @command{tail} prints a header whenever it
gets output from a different file, to indicate which file that output is
from.

There are two ways to specify how you'd like to track files with this option,
but that difference is noticeable only when a followed file is removed or
renamed.
If you'd like to continue to track the end of a growing file even after
it has been unlinked, use @option{--follow=descriptor}.  This is the default
behavior, but it is not useful if you're tracking a log file that may be
rotated (removed or renamed, then reopened).  In that case, use
@option{--follow=name} to track the named file by reopening it periodically
to see if it has been removed and recreated by some other program.

No matter which method you use, if the tracked file is determined to have
shrunk, @command{tail} prints a message saying the file has been truncated
and resumes tracking the end of the file from the newly-determined endpoint.

When a file is removed, @command{tail}'s behavior depends on whether it is
following the name or the descriptor.  When following by name, tail can
detect that a file has been removed and gives a message to that effect,
and if @option{--retry} has been specified it will continue checking
periodically to see if the file reappears.
When following a descriptor, tail does not detect that the file has
been unlinked or renamed and issues no message;  even though the file
may no longer be accessible via its original name, it may still be
growing.

The option values @samp{descriptor} and @samp{name} may be specified only
with the long form of the option, not with @option{-f}.

@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
If @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is set, the @option{-f} option is ignored if
no @var{file} operand is specified and standard input is a FIFO or a pipe.

@item -F
@opindex -F
This option is the same as @option{--follow=name --retry}.  That is, tail
will attempt to reopen a file when it is removed.  Should this fail, tail
will keep trying until it becomes accessible again.

@itemx --retry
@opindex --retry
This option is useful mainly when following by name (i.e., with
@option{--follow=name}).
Without this option, when tail encounters a file that doesn't
exist or is otherwise inaccessible, it reports that fact and
never checks it again.

@itemx --sleep-interval=@var{number}
@opindex --sleep-interval
Change the number of seconds to wait between iterations (the default is 1.0).
During one iteration, every specified file is checked to see if it has
changed size.
Historical implementations of @command{tail} have required that
@var{number} be an integer.  However, GNU @command{tail} accepts
an arbitrary floating point number (using a period before any
fractional digits).

@itemx --pid=@var{pid}
@opindex --pid
When following by name or by descriptor, you may specify the process ID,
@var{pid}, of the sole writer of all @var{file} arguments.  Then, shortly
after that process terminates, tail will also terminate.  This will
work properly only if the writer and the tailing process are running on
the same machine.  For example, to save the output of a build in a file
and to watch the file grow, if you invoke @command{make} and @command{tail}
like this then the tail process will stop when your build completes.
Without this option, you would have had to kill the @code{tail -f}
process yourself.

@example
$ make >& makerr & tail --pid=$! -f makerr
@end example

If you specify a @var{pid} that is not in use or that does not correspond
to the process that is writing to the tailed files, then @command{tail}
may terminate long before any @var{file}s stop growing or it may not
terminate until long after the real writer has terminated.
Note that @option{--pid} cannot be supported on some systems; @command{tail}
will print a warning if this is the case.

@itemx --max-unchanged-stats=@var{n}
@opindex --max-unchanged-stats
When tailing a file by name, if there have been @var{n} (default
n=@value{DEFAULT_MAX_N_UNCHANGED_STATS_BETWEEN_OPENS}) consecutive
iterations for which the file has not changed, then
@code{open}/@code{fstat} the file to determine if that file name is
still associated with the same device/inode-number pair as before.
When following a log file that is rotated, this is approximately the
number of seconds between when tail prints the last pre-rotation lines
and when it prints the lines that have accumulated in the new log file.
This option is meaningful only when following by name.

@itemx -n @var{n}
@itemx --lines=@var{n}
@opindex -n
@opindex --lines
Output the last @var{n} lines.

@item -q
@itemx --quiet
@itemx --silent
@opindex -q
@opindex --quiet
@opindex --silent
Never print file name headers.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Always print file name headers.

@end table

For compatibility @command{tail} also supports an obsolete usage
@samp{tail -[@var{count}][bcl][f] [@var{file}]}, which is recognized
only if it does not conflict with the usage described
above.  This obsolete form uses exactly one option and at most one
file.  In the option, @var{count} is an optional decimal number optionally
followed by a size letter (@samp{b}, @samp{c}, @samp{l}) to mean count
by 512-byte blocks, bytes, or lines, optionally followed by @samp{f}
which has the same meaning as @option{-f}.

@vindex _POSIX2_VERSION
On older systems, the leading @samp{-} can be replaced by @samp{+} in
the obsolete option syntax with the same meaning as in counts, and
obsolete usage overrides normal usage when the two conflict.
This obsolete behavior can be enabled or disabled with the
@env{_POSIX2_VERSION} environment variable (@pxref{Standards
conformance}).

Scripts intended for use on standard hosts should avoid obsolete
syntax and should use @option{-c @var{count}[b]}, @option{-n
@var{count}}, and/or @option{-f} instead.  If your script must also
run on hosts that support only the obsolete syntax, you can often
rewrite it to avoid problematic usages, e.g., by using @samp{sed -n
'$p'} rather than @samp{tail -1}.  If that's not possible, the script
can use a test like @samp{if tail -c +1 </dev/null >/dev/null 2>&1;
then @dots{}} to decide which syntax to use.

Even if your script assumes the standard behavior, you should still
beware usages whose behaviors differ depending on the @acronym{POSIX}
version.  For example, avoid @samp{tail - main.c}, since it might be
interpreted as either @samp{tail main.c} or as @samp{tail -- -
main.c}; avoid @samp{tail -c 4}, since it might mean either @samp{tail
-c4} or @samp{tail -c 10 4}; and avoid @samp{tail +4}, since it might
mean either @samp{tail ./+4} or @samp{tail -n +4}.

@exitstatus


@node split invocation
@section @command{split}: Split a file into fixed-size pieces

@pindex split
@cindex splitting a file into pieces
@cindex pieces, splitting a file into

@command{split} creates output files containing consecutive sections of
@var{input} (standard input if none is given or @var{input} is
@samp{-}).  Synopsis:

@example
split [@var{option}] [@var{input} [@var{prefix}]]
@end example

By default, @command{split} puts 1000 lines of @var{input} (or whatever is
left over for the last section), into each output file.

@cindex output file name prefix
The output files' names consist of @var{prefix} (@samp{x} by default)
followed by a group of characters (@samp{aa}, @samp{ab}, @dots{} by
default), such that concatenating the output files in traditional
sorted order by file name produces
the original input file.  If the output file names are exhausted,
@command{split} reports an error without deleting the output files
that it did create.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -a @var{length}
@itemx --suffix-length=@var{length}
@opindex -a
@opindex --suffix-length
Use suffixes of length @var{length}.  The default @var{length} is 2.

@item -l @var{lines}
@itemx --lines=@var{lines}
@opindex -l
@opindex --lines
Put @var{lines} lines of @var{input} into each output file.

For compatibility @command{split} also supports an obsolete
option syntax @option{-@var{lines}}.  New scripts should use @option{-l
@var{lines}} instead.

@item -b @var{bytes}
@itemx --bytes=@var{bytes}
@opindex -b
@opindex --bytes
Put the first @var{bytes} bytes of @var{input} into each output file.
Appending @samp{b} multiplies @var{bytes} by 512, @samp{k} by 1024, and
@samp{m} by 1048576.

@item -C @var{bytes}
@itemx --line-bytes=@var{bytes}
@opindex -C
@opindex --line-bytes
Put into each output file as many complete lines of @var{input} as
possible without exceeding @var{bytes} bytes.  For lines longer than
@var{bytes} bytes, put @var{bytes} bytes into each output file until
less than @var{bytes} bytes of the line are left, then continue
normally.  @var{bytes} has the same format as for the @option{--bytes}
option.

@item -d
@itemx --numeric-suffixes
@opindex -d
@opindex --numeric-suffixes
Use digits in suffixes rather than lower-case letters.

@itemx --verbose
@opindex --verbose
Write a diagnostic to standard error just before each output file is opened.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node csplit invocation
@section @command{csplit}: Split a file into context-determined pieces

@pindex csplit
@cindex context splitting
@cindex splitting a file into pieces by context

@command{csplit} creates zero or more output files containing sections of
@var{input} (standard input if @var{input} is @samp{-}).  Synopsis:

@example
csplit [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{input} @var{pattern}@dots{}
@end example

The contents of the output files are determined by the @var{pattern}
arguments, as detailed below.  An error occurs if a @var{pattern}
argument refers to a nonexistent line of the input file (e.g., if no
remaining line matches a given regular expression).  After every
@var{pattern} has been matched, any remaining input is copied into one
last output file.

By default, @command{csplit} prints the number of bytes written to each
output file after it has been created.

The types of pattern arguments are:

@table @samp

@item @var{n}
Create an output file containing the input up to but not including line
@var{n} (a positive integer).  If followed by a repeat count, also
create an output file containing the next @var{n} lines of the input
file once for each repeat.

@item /@var{regexp}/[@var{offset}]
Create an output file containing the current line up to (but not
including) the next line of the input file that contains a match for
@var{regexp}.  The optional @var{offset} is an integer.
If it is given, the input up to (but not including) the
matching line plus or minus @var{offset} is put into the output file,
and the line after that begins the next section of input.

@item %@var{regexp}%[@var{offset}]
Like the previous type, except that it does not create an output
file, so that section of the input file is effectively ignored.

@item @{@var{repeat-count}@}
Repeat the previous pattern @var{repeat-count} additional
times.  The @var{repeat-count} can either be a positive integer or an
asterisk, meaning repeat as many times as necessary until the input is
exhausted.

@end table

The output files' names consist of a prefix (@samp{xx} by default)
followed by a suffix.  By default, the suffix is an ascending sequence
of two-digit decimal numbers from @samp{00} to @samp{99}.  In any case,
concatenating the output files in sorted order by file name produces the
original input file.

By default, if @command{csplit} encounters an error or receives a hangup,
interrupt, quit, or terminate signal, it removes any output files
that it has created so far before it exits.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -f @var{prefix}
@itemx --prefix=@var{prefix}
@opindex -f
@opindex --prefix
@cindex output file name prefix
Use @var{prefix} as the output file name prefix.

@item -b @var{suffix}
@itemx --suffix=@var{suffix}
@opindex -b
@opindex --suffix
@cindex output file name suffix
Use @var{suffix} as the output file name suffix.  When this option is
specified, the suffix string must include exactly one
@code{printf(3)}-style conversion specification, possibly including
format specification flags, a field width, a precision specifications,
or all of these kinds of modifiers.  The format letter must convert a
binary integer argument to readable form; thus, only @samp{d}, @samp{i},
@samp{u}, @samp{o}, @samp{x}, and @samp{X} conversions are allowed.  The
entire @var{suffix} is given (with the current output file number) to
@code{sprintf(3)} to form the file name suffixes for each of the
individual output files in turn.  If this option is used, the
@option{--digits} option is ignored.

@item -n @var{digits}
@itemx --digits=@var{digits}
@opindex -n
@opindex --digits
Use output file names containing numbers that are @var{digits} digits
long instead of the default 2.

@item -k
@itemx --keep-files
@opindex -k
@opindex --keep-files
Do not remove output files when errors are encountered.

@item -z
@itemx --elide-empty-files
@opindex -z
@opindex --elide-empty-files
Suppress the generation of zero-length output files.  (In cases where
the section delimiters of the input file are supposed to mark the first
lines of each of the sections, the first output file will generally be a
zero-length file unless you use this option.)  The output file sequence
numbers always run consecutively starting from 0, even when this option
is specified.

@item -s
@itemx -q
@itemx --silent
@itemx --quiet
@opindex -s
@opindex -q
@opindex --silent
@opindex --quiet
Do not print counts of output file sizes.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node Summarizing files
@chapter Summarizing files

@cindex summarizing files

These commands generate just a few numbers representing entire
contents of files.

@menu
* wc invocation::               Print newline, word, and byte counts.
* sum invocation::              Print checksum and block counts.
* cksum invocation::            Print CRC checksum and byte counts.
* md5sum invocation::           Print or check MD5 digests.
* sha1sum invocation::          Print or check SHA-1 digests.
* sha2 utilities::              Print or check SHA-2 digests.
@end menu


@node wc invocation
@section @command{wc}: Print newline, word, and byte counts

@pindex wc
@cindex byte count
@cindex character count
@cindex word count
@cindex line count

@command{wc} counts the number of bytes, characters, whitespace-separated
words, and newlines in each given @var{file}, or standard input if none
are given or for a @var{file} of @samp{-}.  Synopsis:

@example
wc [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@cindex total counts
@command{wc} prints one line of counts for each file, and if the file was
given as an argument, it prints the file name following the counts.  If
more than one @var{file} is given, @command{wc} prints a final line
containing the cumulative counts, with the file name @file{total}.  The
counts are printed in this order: newlines, words, characters, bytes,
maximum line length.
Each count is printed right-justified in a field with at least one
space between fields so that the numbers and file names normally line
up nicely in columns.  The width of the count fields varies depending
on the inputs, so you should not depend on a particular field width.
However, as a @acronym{GNU} extension, if only one count is printed,
it is guaranteed to be printed without leading spaces.

By default, @command{wc} prints three counts: the newline, words, and byte
counts.  Options can specify that only certain counts be printed.
Options do not undo others previously given, so

@example
wc --bytes --words
@end example

@noindent
prints both the byte counts and the word counts.

With the @option{--max-line-length} option, @command{wc} prints the length
of the longest line per file, and if there is more than one file it
prints the maximum (not the sum) of those lengths.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -c
@itemx --bytes
@opindex -c
@opindex --bytes
Print only the byte counts.

@item -m
@itemx --chars
@opindex -m
@opindex --chars
Print only the character counts.

@item -w
@itemx --words
@opindex -w
@opindex --words
Print only the word counts.

@item -l
@itemx --lines
@opindex -l
@opindex --lines
Print only the newline counts.

@item -L
@itemx --max-line-length
@opindex -L
@opindex --max-line-length
Print only the maximum line lengths.

@itemx --files0-from=@var{FILE}
@opindex --files0-from=@var{FILE}
@cindex including files from @command{du}
Rather than processing files named on the command line, process those
named in file @var{FILE}; each name is terminated by a null byte.
This is useful when
the list of file names is so long that it may exceed a command line
length limitation.
In such cases, running @command{wc} via @command{xargs} is undesirable
because it splits the list into pieces and makes @command{wc} print a
total for each sublist rather than for the entire list.
One way to produce a list of null-byte-terminated file names is with @sc{gnu}
@command{find}, using its @option{-print0} predicate.  For example, to find
the length of the longest line in any @file{.c} or @file{.h} file in the
current hierarchy, do this:

@example
find . -name '*.[ch]' -print0 | wc -L --files0-from=- | tail -n1
@end example

Do not specify any @var{FILE} on the command line when using this option.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node sum invocation
@section @command{sum}: Print checksum and block counts

@pindex sum
@cindex 16-bit checksum
@cindex checksum, 16-bit

@command{sum} computes a 16-bit checksum for each given @var{file}, or
standard input if none are given or for a @var{file} of @samp{-}.  Synopsis:

@example
sum [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@command{sum} prints the checksum for each @var{file} followed by the
number of blocks in the file (rounded up).  If more than one @var{file}
is given, file names are also printed (by default).  (With the
@option{--sysv} option, corresponding file names are printed when there is
at least one file argument.)

By default, @sc{gnu} @command{sum} computes checksums using an algorithm
compatible with BSD @command{sum} and prints file sizes in units of
1024-byte blocks.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -r
@opindex -r
@cindex BSD @command{sum}
Use the default (BSD compatible) algorithm.  This option is included for
compatibility with the System V @command{sum}.  Unless @option{-s} was also
given, it has no effect.

@item -s
@itemx --sysv
@opindex -s
@opindex --sysv
@cindex System V @command{sum}
Compute checksums using an algorithm compatible with System V
@command{sum}'s default, and print file sizes in units of 512-byte blocks.

@end table

@command{sum} is provided for compatibility; the @command{cksum} program (see
next section) is preferable in new applications.

@exitstatus


@node cksum invocation
@section @command{cksum}: Print CRC checksum and byte counts

@pindex cksum
@cindex cyclic redundancy check
@cindex CRC checksum

@command{cksum} computes a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) checksum for each
given @var{file}, or standard input if none are given or for a
@var{file} of @samp{-}.  Synopsis:

@example
cksum [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@command{cksum} prints the CRC checksum for each file along with the number
of bytes in the file, and the file name unless no arguments were given.

@command{cksum} is typically used to ensure that files
transferred by unreliable means (e.g., netnews) have not been corrupted,
by comparing the @command{cksum} output for the received files with the
@command{cksum} output for the original files (typically given in the
distribution).

The CRC algorithm is specified by the @acronym{POSIX} standard.  It is not
compatible with the BSD or System V @command{sum} algorithms (see the
previous section); it is more robust.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.

@exitstatus


@node md5sum invocation
@section @command{md5sum}: Print or check MD5 digests

@pindex md5sum
@cindex MD5
@cindex 128-bit checksum
@cindex checksum, 128-bit
@cindex fingerprint, 128-bit
@cindex message-digest, 128-bit

@command{md5sum} computes a 128-bit checksum (or @dfn{fingerprint} or
@dfn{message-digest}) for each specified @var{file}.

Note: The MD5 digest is more reliable than a simple CRC (provided by
the @command{cksum} command) for detecting accidental file corruption,
as the chances of accidentally having two files with identical MD5
are vanishingly small.  However, it should not be considered truly
secure against malicious tampering: although finding a file with a
given MD5 fingerprint, or modifying a file so as to retain its MD5 are
considered infeasible at the moment, it is known how to produce
different files with identical MD5 (a ``collision''), something which
can be a security issue in certain contexts.  For more secure hashes,
consider using SHA-1 or SHA-2.  @xref{sha1sum invocation}, and
@ref{sha2 utilities}.

If a @var{file} is specified as @samp{-} or if no files are given
@command{md5sum} computes the checksum for the standard input.
@command{md5sum} can also determine whether a file and checksum are
consistent.  Synopsis:

@example
md5sum [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

For each @var{file}, @samp{md5sum} outputs the MD5 checksum, a flag
indicating a binary or text input file, and the file name.
If @var{file} contains a backslash or newline, the
line is started with a backslash, and each problematic character in
the file name is escaped with a backslash, making the output
unambiguous even in the presence of arbitrary file names.
If @var{file} is omitted or specified as @samp{-}, standard input is read.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -b
@itemx --binary
@opindex -b
@opindex --binary
@cindex binary input files
Treat each input file as binary, by reading it in binary mode and
outputting a @samp{*} flag.  This is the inverse of @option{--text}.
On systems like @acronym{GNU} that do not distinguish between binary
and text files, this option merely flags each input file as binary:
the MD5 checksum is unaffected.  This option is the default on systems
like MS-DOS that distinguish between binary and text files, except
for reading standard input when standard input is a terminal.

@item -c
@itemx --check
Read file names and checksum information (not data) from each
@var{file} (or from stdin if no @var{file} was specified) and report
whether the checksums match the contents of the named files.
The input to this mode of @command{md5sum} is usually the output of
a prior, checksum-generating run of @samp{md5sum}.
Each valid line of input consists of an MD5 checksum, a binary/text
flag, and then a file name.
Binary files are marked with @samp{*}, text with @samp{ }.
For each such line, @command{md5sum} reads the named file and computes its
MD5 checksum.  Then, if the computed message digest does not match the
one on the line with the file name, the file is noted as having
failed the test.  Otherwise, the file passes the test.
By default, for each valid line, one line is written to standard
output indicating whether the named file passed the test.
After all checks have been performed, if there were any failures,
a warning is issued to standard error.
Use the @option{--status} option to inhibit that output.
If any listed file cannot be opened or read, if any valid line has
an MD5 checksum inconsistent with the associated file, or if no valid
line is found, @command{md5sum} exits with nonzero status.  Otherwise,
it exits successfully.

@itemx --status
@opindex --status
@cindex verifying MD5 checksums
This option is useful only when verifying checksums.
When verifying checksums, don't generate the default one-line-per-file
diagnostic and don't output the warning summarizing any failures.
Failures to open or read a file still evoke individual diagnostics to
standard error.
If all listed files are readable and are consistent with the associated
MD5 checksums, exit successfully.  Otherwise exit with a status code
indicating there was a failure.

@item -t
@itemx --text
@opindex -t
@opindex --text
@cindex text input files
Treat each input file as text, by reading it in text mode and
outputting a @samp{ } flag.  This is the inverse of @option{--binary}.
This option is the default on systems like @acronym{GNU} that do not
distinguish between binary and text files.  On other systems, it is
the default for reading standard input when standard input is a
terminal.

@item -w
@itemx --warn
@opindex -w
@opindex --warn
@cindex verifying MD5 checksums
When verifying checksums, warn about improperly formatted MD5 checksum lines.
This option is useful only if all but a few lines in the checked input
are valid.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node sha1sum invocation
@section @command{sha1sum}: Print or check SHA-1 digests

@pindex sha1sum
@cindex SHA-1
@cindex 160-bit checksum
@cindex checksum, 160-bit
@cindex fingerprint, 160-bit
@cindex message-digest, 160-bit

@command{sha1sum} computes a 160-bit checksum for each specified
@var{file}.  The usage and options of this command are precisely the
same as for @command{md5sum}.  @xref{md5sum invocation}.

Note: The SHA-1 digest is more secure than MD5, and no collisions of
it are known (different files having the same fingerprint).  However,
it is known that they can be produced with considerable, but not
unreasonable, resources.  For this reason, it is generally considered
that SHA-1 should be gradually phased out in favor of the more secure
SHA-2 hash algorithms.  @xref{sha2 utilities}.


@node sha2 utilities
@section sha2 utilities: Print or check SHA-2 digests

@pindex sha224sum
@pindex sha256sum
@pindex sha384sum
@pindex sha512sum
@cindex SHA-2
@cindex 224-bit checksum
@cindex 256-bit checksum
@cindex 384-bit checksum
@cindex 512-bit checksum
@cindex checksum, 224-bit
@cindex checksum, 256-bit
@cindex checksum, 384-bit
@cindex checksum, 512-bit
@cindex fingerprint, 224-bit
@cindex fingerprint, 256-bit
@cindex fingerprint, 384-bit
@cindex fingerprint, 512-bit
@cindex message-digest, 224-bit
@cindex message-digest, 256-bit
@cindex message-digest, 384-bit
@cindex message-digest, 512-bit

The commands @command{sha224sum}, @command{sha256sum},
@command{sha384sum} and @command{sha512sum} compute checksums of
various lengths (respectively 224, 256, 384 and 512 bits),
collectively known as the SHA-2 hashes.  The usage and options of
these commands are precisely the same as for @command{md5sum}.
@xref{md5sum invocation}.

Note: The SHA384 and SHA512 digests are considerably slower to
compute, especially on 32-bit computers, than SHA224 or SHA256.


@node Operating on sorted files
@chapter Operating on sorted files

@cindex operating on sorted files
@cindex sorted files, operations on

These commands work with (or produce) sorted files.

@menu
* sort invocation::             Sort text files.
* shuf invocation::             Shuffle text files.
* uniq invocation::             Uniquify files.
* comm invocation::             Compare two sorted files line by line.
* ptx invocation::              Produce a permuted index of file contents.
* tsort invocation::            Topological sort.
* tsort background::            Where tsort came from.
@end menu


@node sort invocation
@section @command{sort}: Sort text files

@pindex sort
@cindex sorting files

@command{sort} sorts, merges, or compares all the lines from the given
files, or standard input if none are given or for a @var{file} of
@samp{-}.  By default, @command{sort} writes the results to standard
output.  Synopsis:

@example
sort [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@command{sort} has three modes of operation: sort (the default), merge,
and check for sortedness.  The following options change the operation
mode:

@table @samp

@item -c
@itemx --check
@itemx --check=diagnose-first
@opindex -c
@opindex --check
@cindex checking for sortedness
Check whether the given file is already sorted: if it is not all
sorted, print a diagnostic containing the first out-of-order line and
exit with a status of 1.
Otherwise, exit successfully.
At most one input file can be given.

@item -C
@itemx --check=quiet
@itemx --check=silent
@opindex -c
@opindex --check
@cindex checking for sortedness
Exit successfully if the given file is already sorted, and
exit with status 1 otherwise.
At most one input file can be given.
This is like @option{-c}, except it does not print a diagnostic.

@item -m
@itemx --merge
@opindex -m
@opindex --merge
@cindex merging sorted files
Merge the given files by sorting them as a group.  Each input file must
always be individually sorted.  It always works to sort instead of
merge; merging is provided because it is faster, in the case where it
works.

@end table

@cindex sort stability
@cindex sort's last-resort comparison
A pair of lines is compared as follows:
@command{sort} compares each pair of fields, in the
order specified on the command line, according to the associated
ordering options, until a difference is found or no fields are left.
If no key fields are specified, @command{sort} uses a default key of
the entire line.  Finally, as a last resort when all keys compare
equal, @command{sort} compares entire lines as if no ordering options
other than @option{--reverse} (@option{-r}) were specified.  The
@option{--stable} (@option{-s}) option disables this @dfn{last-resort
comparison} so that lines in which all fields compare equal are left
in their original relative order.  The @option{--unique}
(@option{-u}) option also disables the last-resort comparison.

@vindex LC_ALL
@vindex LC_COLLATE
Unless otherwise specified, all comparisons use the character collating
sequence specified by the @env{LC_COLLATE} locale.@footnote{If you
use a non-@acronym{POSIX} locale (e.g., by setting @env{LC_ALL}
to @samp{en_US}), then @command{sort} may produce output that is sorted
differently than you're accustomed to.  In that case, set the @env{LC_ALL}
environment variable to @samp{C}.  Note that setting only @env{LC_COLLATE}
has two problems.  First, it is ineffective if @env{LC_ALL} is also set.
Second, it has undefined behavior if @env{LC_CTYPE} (or @env{LANG}, if
@env{LC_CTYPE} is unset) is set to an incompatible value.  For example,
you get undefined behavior if @env{LC_CTYPE} is @code{ja_JP.PCK} but
@env{LC_COLLATE} is @code{en_US.UTF-8}.}

@sc{gnu} @command{sort} (as specified for all @sc{gnu} utilities) has no
limit on input line length or restrictions on bytes allowed within lines.
In addition, if the final byte of an input file is not a newline, @sc{gnu}
@command{sort} silently supplies one.  A line's trailing newline is not
part of the line for comparison purposes.

@cindex exit status of @command{sort}
Exit status:

@display
0 if no error occurred
1 if invoked with @option{-c} or @option{-C} and the input is not sorted
2 if an error occurred
@end display

@vindex TMPDIR
If the environment variable @env{TMPDIR} is set, @command{sort} uses its
value as the directory for temporary files instead of @file{/tmp}.  The
@option{--temporary-directory} (@option{-T}) option in turn overrides
the environment variable.

The following options affect the ordering of output lines.  They may be
specified globally or as part of a specific key field.  If no key
fields are specified, global options apply to comparison of entire
lines; otherwise the global options are inherited by key fields that do
not specify any special options of their own.  In pre-@acronym{POSIX}
versions of @command{sort}, global options affect only later key fields,
so portable shell scripts should specify global options first.

@table @samp

@item -b
@itemx --ignore-leading-blanks
@opindex -b
@opindex --ignore-leading-blanks
@cindex blanks, ignoring leading
@vindex LC_CTYPE
Ignore leading blanks when finding sort keys in each line.
By default a blank is a space or a tab, but the @env{LC_CTYPE} locale
can change this.

@item -d
@itemx --dictionary-order
@opindex -d
@opindex --dictionary-order
@cindex dictionary order
@cindex phone directory order
@cindex telephone directory order
@vindex LC_CTYPE
Sort in @dfn{phone directory} order: ignore all characters except
letters, digits and blanks when sorting.
By default letters and digits are those of @acronym{ASCII} and a blank
is a space or a tab, but the @env{LC_CTYPE} locale can change this.

@item -f
@itemx --ignore-case
@opindex -f
@opindex --ignore-case
@cindex ignoring case
@cindex case folding
@vindex LC_CTYPE
Fold lowercase characters into the equivalent uppercase characters when
comparing so that, for example, @samp{b} and @samp{B} sort as equal.
The @env{LC_CTYPE} locale determines character types.

@item -g
@itemx --general-numeric-sort
@opindex -g
@opindex --general-numeric-sort
@cindex general numeric sort
@vindex LC_NUMERIC
Sort numerically, using the standard C function @code{strtod} to convert
a prefix of each line to a double-precision floating point number.
This allows floating point numbers to be specified in scientific notation,
like @code{1.0e-34} and @code{10e100}.
The @env{LC_NUMERIC} locale determines the decimal-point character.
Do not report overflow, underflow, or conversion errors.
Use the following collating sequence:

@itemize @bullet
@item
Lines that do not start with numbers (all considered to be equal).
@item
NaNs (``Not a Number'' values, in IEEE floating point arithmetic)
in a consistent but machine-dependent order.
@item
Minus infinity.
@item
Finite numbers in ascending numeric order (with @math{-0} and @math{+0} equal).
@item
Plus infinity.
@end itemize

Use this option only if there is no alternative; it is much slower than
@option{--numeric-sort} (@option{-n}) and it can lose information when
converting to floating point.

@item -i
@itemx --ignore-nonprinting
@opindex -i
@opindex --ignore-nonprinting
@cindex nonprinting characters, ignoring
@cindex unprintable characters, ignoring
@vindex LC_CTYPE
Ignore nonprinting characters.
The @env{LC_CTYPE} locale determines character types.
This option has no effect if the stronger @option{--dictionary-order}
(@option{-d}) option is also given.

@item -M
@itemx --month-sort
@opindex -M
@opindex --month-sort
@cindex months, sorting by
@vindex LC_TIME
An initial string, consisting of any amount of blanks, followed
by a month name abbreviation, is folded to UPPER case and
compared in the order @samp{JAN} < @samp{FEB} < @dots{} < @samp{DEC}.
Invalid names compare low to valid names.  The @env{LC_TIME} locale
category determines the month spellings.
By default a blank is a space or a tab, but the @env{LC_CTYPE} locale
can change this.

@item -n
@itemx --numeric-sort
@opindex -n
@opindex --numeric-sort
@cindex numeric sort
@vindex LC_NUMERIC
Sort numerically.  The number begins each line and consists
of optional blanks, an optional @samp{-} sign, and zero or more
digits possibly separated by thousands separators, optionally followed
by a decimal-point character and zero or more digits.  An empty
number is treated as @samp{0}.  The @env{LC_NUMERIC}
locale specifies the decimal-point character and thousands separator.
By default a blank is a space or a tab, but the @env{LC_CTYPE} locale
can change this.

Comparison is exact; there is no rounding error.

Neither a leading @samp{+} nor exponential notation is recognized.
To compare such strings numerically, use the
@option{--general-numeric-sort} (@option{-g}) option.

@item -r
@itemx --reverse
@opindex -r
@opindex --reverse
@cindex reverse sorting
Reverse the result of comparison, so that lines with greater key values
appear earlier in the output instead of later.

@item -R
@itemx --random-sort
@opindex -R
@opindex --random-sort
@cindex random sort
Sort by hashing the input keys and then sorting the hash values.
Choose the hash function at random, ensuring that it is free of
collisions so that differing keys have differing hash values.  This is
like a random permutation of the inputs (@pxref{shuf invocation}),
except that keys with the same value sort together.

If multiple random sort fields are specified, the same random hash
function is used for all fields.  To use different random hash
functions for different fields, you can invoke @command{sort} more
than once.

The choice of hash function is affected by the
@option{--random-source} option.

@end table

Other options are:

@table @samp

@item --compress-program=@var{prog}
Compress any temporary files with the program @var{prog}.

With no arguments, @var{prog} must compress standard input to standard
output, and when given the @option{-d} option it must decompress
standard input to standard output.

Terminate with an error if @var{prog} exits with nonzero status.

Whitespace and the backslash character should not appear in
@var{prog}; they are reserved for future use.

@item -k @var{pos1}[,@var{pos2}]
@itemx --key=@var{pos1}[,@var{pos2}]
@opindex -k
@opindex --key
@cindex sort field
Specify a sort field that consists of the part of the line between
@var{pos1} and @var{pos2} (or the end of the line, if @var{pos2} is
omitted), @emph{inclusive}.

Each @var{pos} has the form @samp{@var{f}[.@var{c}][@var{opts}]},
where @var{f} is the number of the field to use, and @var{c} is the number
of the first character from the beginning of the field.  Fields and character
positions are numbered starting with 1; a character position of zero in
@var{pos2} indicates the field's last character.  If @samp{.@var{c}} is
omitted from @var{pos1}, it defaults to 1 (the beginning of the field);
if omitted from @var{pos2}, it defaults to 0 (the end of the field).
@var{opts} are ordering options, allowing individual keys to be sorted
according to different rules; see below for details.  Keys can span
multiple fields.

Example:  To sort on the second field, use @option{--key=2,2}
(@option{-k 2,2}).  See below for more examples.

@item -o @var{output-file}
@itemx --output=@var{output-file}
@opindex -o
@opindex --output
@cindex overwriting of input, allowed
Write output to @var{output-file} instead of standard output.
Normally, @command{sort} reads all input before opening
@var{output-file}, so you can safely sort a file in place by using
commands like @code{sort -o F F} and @code{cat F | sort -o F}.
However, @command{sort} with @option{--merge} (@option{-m}) can open
the output file before reading all input, so a command like @code{cat
F | sort -m -o F - G} is not safe as @command{sort} might start
writing @file{F} before @command{cat} is done reading it.

@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
On newer systems, @option{-o} cannot appear after an input file if
@env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is set, e.g., @samp{sort F -o F}.  Portable
scripts should specify @option{-o @var{output-file}} before any input
files.

@item --random-source=@var{file}
@opindex --random-source
@cindex random source for sorting
Use @var{file} as a source of random data used to determine which
random hash function to use with the @option{-R} option.  @xref{Random
sources}.

@item -s
@itemx --stable
@opindex -s
@opindex --stable
@cindex sort stability
@cindex sort's last-resort comparison

Make @command{sort} stable by disabling its last-resort comparison.
This option has no effect if no fields or global ordering options
other than @option{--reverse} (@option{-r}) are specified.

@item -S @var{size}
@itemx --buffer-size=@var{size}
@opindex -S
@opindex --buffer-size
@cindex size for main memory sorting
Use a main-memory sort buffer of the given @var{size}.  By default,
@var{size} is in units of 1024 bytes.  Appending @samp{%} causes
@var{size} to be interpreted as a percentage of physical memory.
Appending @samp{K} multiplies @var{size} by 1024 (the default),
@samp{M} by 1,048,576, @samp{G} by 1,073,741,824, and so on for
@samp{T}, @samp{P}, @samp{E}, @samp{Z}, and @samp{Y}.  Appending
@samp{b} causes @var{size} to be interpreted as a byte count, with no
multiplication.

This option can improve the performance of @command{sort} by causing it
to start with a larger or smaller sort buffer than the default.
However, this option affects only the initial buffer size.  The buffer
grows beyond @var{size} if @command{sort} encounters input lines larger
than @var{size}.

@item -t @var{separator}
@itemx --field-separator=@var{separator}
@opindex -t
@opindex --field-separator
@cindex field separator character
Use character @var{separator} as the field separator when finding the
sort keys in each line.  By default, fields are separated by the empty
string between a non-blank character and a blank character.
By default a blank is a space or a tab, but the @env{LC_CTYPE} locale
can change this.

That is, given the input line @w{@samp{ foo bar}}, @command{sort} breaks it
into fields @w{@samp{ foo}} and @w{@samp{ bar}}.  The field separator is
not considered to be part of either the field preceding or the field
following, so with @samp{sort @w{-t " "}} the same input line has
three fields: an empty field, @samp{foo}, and @samp{bar}.
However, fields that extend to the end of the line,
as @option{-k 2}, or fields consisting of a range, as @option{-k 2,3},
retain the field separators present between the endpoints of the range.

To specify a null character (@acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul}) as
the field separator, use the two-character string @samp{\0}, e.g.,
@samp{sort -t '\0'}.

@item -T @var{tempdir}
@itemx --temporary-directory=@var{tempdir}
@opindex -T
@opindex --temporary-directory
@cindex temporary directory
@vindex TMPDIR
Use directory @var{tempdir} to store temporary files, overriding the
@env{TMPDIR} environment variable.  If this option is given more than
once, temporary files are stored in all the directories given.  If you
have a large sort or merge that is I/O-bound, you can often improve
performance by using this option to specify directories on different
disks and controllers.

@item -u
@itemx --unique
@opindex -u
@opindex --unique
@cindex uniquifying output

Normally, output only the first of a sequence of lines that compare
equal.  For the @option{--check} (@option{-c} or @option{-C}) option,
check that no pair of consecutive lines compares equal.

This option also disables the default last-resort comparison.

The commands @code{sort -u} and @code{sort | uniq} are equivalent, but
this equivalence does not extend to arbitrary @command{sort} options.
For example, @code{sort -n -u} inspects only the value of the initial
numeric string when checking for uniqueness, whereas @code{sort -n |
uniq} inspects the entire line.  @xref{uniq invocation}.

@item -z
@itemx --zero-terminated
@opindex -z
@opindex --zero-terminated
@cindex sort zero-terminated lines
Treat the input as a set of lines, each terminated by a null character
(@acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul}) instead of a line feed
(@acronym{ASCII} @sc{lf}).
This option can be useful in conjunction with @samp{perl -0} or
@samp{find -print0} and @samp{xargs -0} which do the same in order to
reliably handle arbitrary file names (even those containing blanks
or other special characters).

@end table

Historical (BSD and System V) implementations of @command{sort} have
differed in their interpretation of some options, particularly
@option{-b}, @option{-f}, and @option{-n}.  @sc{gnu} sort follows the @acronym{POSIX}
behavior, which is usually (but not always!) like the System V behavior.
According to @acronym{POSIX}, @option{-n} no longer implies @option{-b}.  For
consistency, @option{-M} has been changed in the same way.  This may
affect the meaning of character positions in field specifications in
obscure cases.  The only fix is to add an explicit @option{-b}.

A position in a sort field specified with @option{-k} may have any
of the option letters @samp{Mbdfinr} appended to it, in which case the
global ordering options are not used for that particular field.  The
@option{-b} option may be independently attached to either or both of
the start and end positions of a field specification, and if it is
inherited from the global options it will be attached to both.
If input lines can contain leading or adjacent blanks and @option{-t}
is not used, then @option{-k} is typically combined with @option{-b},
@option{-g}, @option{-M}, or @option{-n}; otherwise the varying
numbers of leading blanks in fields can cause confusing results.

If the start position in a sort field specifier falls after the end of
the line or after the end field, the field is empty.  If the @option{-b}
option was specified, the @samp{.@var{c}} part of a field specification
is counted from the first nonblank character of the field.

@vindex _POSIX2_VERSION
@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
On older systems, @command{sort} supports an obsolete origin-zero
syntax @samp{+@var{pos1} [-@var{pos2}]} for specifying sort keys.
This obsolete behavior can be enabled or disabled with the
@env{_POSIX2_VERSION} environment variable (@pxref{Standards
conformance}); it can also be enabled when @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is
not set by using the obsolete syntax with @samp{-@var{pos2}} present.

Scripts intended for use on standard hosts should avoid obsolete
syntax and should use @option{-k} instead.  For example, avoid
@samp{sort +2}, since it might be interpreted as either @samp{sort
./+2} or @samp{sort -k 3}.  If your script must also run on hosts that
support only the obsolete syntax, it can use a test like @samp{if sort
-k 1 </dev/null >/dev/null 2>&1; then @dots{}} to decide which syntax
to use.

Here are some examples to illustrate various combinations of options.

@itemize @bullet

@item
Sort in descending (reverse) numeric order.

@example
sort -n -r
@end example

@item
Sort alphabetically, omitting the first and second fields
and the blanks at the start of the third field.
This uses a single key composed of the characters beginning
at the start of the first nonblank character in field three
and extending to the end of each line.

@example
sort -k 3b
@end example

@item
Sort numerically on the second field and resolve ties by sorting
alphabetically on the third and fourth characters of field five.
Use @samp{:} as the field delimiter.

@example
sort -t : -k 2,2n -k 5.3,5.4
@end example

Note that if you had written @option{-k 2n} instead of @option{-k 2,2n}
@command{sort} would have used all characters beginning in the second field
and extending to the end of the line as the primary @emph{numeric}
key.  For the large majority of applications, treating keys spanning
more than one field as numeric will not do what you expect.

Also note that the @samp{n} modifier was applied to the field-end
specifier for the first key.  It would have been equivalent to
specify @option{-k 2n,2} or @option{-k 2n,2n}.  All modifiers except
@samp{b} apply to the associated @emph{field}, regardless of whether
the modifier character is attached to the field-start and/or the
field-end part of the key specifier.

@item
Sort the password file on the fifth field and ignore any
leading blanks.  Sort lines with equal values in field five
on the numeric user ID in field three.  Fields are separated
by @samp{:}.

@example
sort -t : -k 5b,5 -k 3,3n /etc/passwd
sort -t : -n -k 5b,5 -k 3,3 /etc/passwd
sort -t : -b -k 5,5 -k 3,3n /etc/passwd
@end example

These three commands have equivalent effect.  The first specifies that
the first key's start position ignores leading blanks and the second
key is sorted numerically.  The other two commands rely on global
options being inherited by sort keys that lack modifiers.  The inheritance
works in this case because @option{-k 5b,5b} and @option{-k 5b,5} are
equivalent, as the location of a field-end lacking a @samp{.@var{c}}
character position is not affected by whether initial blanks are
skipped.

@item
Sort a set of log files, primarily by IPv4 address and secondarily by
time stamp.  If two lines' primary and secondary keys are identical,
output the lines in the same order that they were input.  The log
files contain lines that look like this:

@example
4.150.156.3 - - [01/Apr/2004:06:31:51 +0000] message 1
211.24.3.231 - - [24/Apr/2004:20:17:39 +0000] message 2
@end example

Fields are separated by exactly one space.  Sort IPv4 addresses
lexicographically, e.g., 212.61.52.2 sorts before 212.129.233.201
because 61 is less than 129.

@example
sort -s -t ' ' -k 4.9n -k 4.5M -k 4.2n -k 4.14,4.21 file*.log |
sort -s -t '.' -k 1,1n -k 2,2n -k 3,3n -k 4,4n
@end example

This example cannot be done with a single @command{sort} invocation,
since IPv4 address components are separated by @samp{.} while dates
come just after a space.  So it is broken down into two invocations of
@command{sort}: the first sorts by time stamp and the second by IPv4
address.  The time stamp is sorted by year, then month, then day, and
finally by hour-minute-second field, using @option{-k} to isolate each
field.  Except for hour-minute-second there's no need to specify the
end of each key field, since the @samp{n} and @samp{M} modifiers sort
based on leading prefixes that cannot cross field boundaries.  The
IPv4 addresses are sorted lexicographically.  The second sort uses
@samp{-s} so that ties in the primary key are broken by the secondary
key; the first sort uses @samp{-s} so that the combination of the two
sorts is stable.

@item
Generate a tags file in case-insensitive sorted order.

@smallexample
find src -type f -print0 | sort -z -f | xargs -0 etags --append
@end smallexample

The use of @option{-print0}, @option{-z}, and @option{-0} in this case means
that file names that contain blanks or other special characters are
not broken up
by the sort operation.

@c This example is a bit contrived and needs more explanation.
@c @item
@c Sort records separated by an arbitrary string by using a pipe to convert
@c each record delimiter string to @samp{\0}, then using sort's -z option,
@c and converting each @samp{\0} back to the original record delimiter.
@c
@c @example
@c printf 'c\n\nb\n\na\n'|perl -0pe 's/\n\n/\n\0/g'|sort -z|perl -0pe 's/\0/\n/g'
@c @end example

@item
Shuffle a list of directories, but preserve the order of files within
each directory.  For instance, one could use this to generate a music
playlist in which albums are shuffled but the songs of each album are
played in order.

@example
ls */* | sort -t / -k 1,1R -k 2,2
@end example

@end itemize


@node shuf invocation
@section @command{shuf}: Shuffling text

@pindex shuf
@cindex shuffling files

@command{shuf} shuffles its input by outputting a random permutation
of its input lines.  Each output permutation is equally likely.
Synopses:

@example
shuf [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]
shuf -e [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{arg}]@dots{}
shuf -i @var{lo}-@var{hi} [@var{option}]@dots{}
@end example

@command{shuf} has three modes of operation that affect where it
obtains its input lines.  By default, it reads lines from standard
input.  The following options change the operation mode:

@table @samp

@item -e
@itemx --echo
@opindex -c
@opindex --echo
@cindex command-line operands to shuffle
Treat each command-line operand as an input line.

@item -i @var{lo}-@var{hi}
@itemx --input-range=@var{lo}-@var{hi}
@opindex -i
@opindex --input-range
@cindex input range to shuffle
Act as if input came from a file containing the range of unsigned
decimal integers @var{lo}@dots{}@var{hi}, one per line.

@end table

@command{shuf}'s other options can affect its behavior in all
operation modes:

@table @samp

@item -n @var{lines}
@itemx --head-lines=@var{lines}
@opindex -n
@opindex --head-lines
@cindex head of output
Output at most @var{lines} lines.  By default, all input lines are
output.

@item -o @var{output-file}
@itemx --output=@var{output-file}
@opindex -o
@opindex --output
@cindex overwriting of input, allowed
Write output to @var{output-file} instead of standard output.
@command{shuf} reads all input before opening
@var{output-file}, so you can safely shuffle a file in place by using
commands like @code{shuf -o F <F} and @code{cat F | shuf -o F}.

@item --random-source=@var{file}
@opindex --random-source
@cindex random source for shuffling
Use @var{file} as a source of random data used to determine which
permutation to generate.  @xref{Random sources}.

@item -z
@itemx --zero-terminated
@opindex -z
@opindex --zero-terminated
@cindex sort zero-terminated lines
Treat the input and output as a set of lines, each terminated by a zero byte
(@acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul} (Null) character) instead of an
@acronym{ASCII} @sc{lf} (Line Feed).
This option can be useful in conjunction with @samp{perl -0} or
@samp{find -print0} and @samp{xargs -0} which do the same in order to
reliably handle arbitrary file names (even those containing blanks
or other special characters).

@end table

For example:

@example
shuf <<EOF
A man,
a plan,
a canal:
Panama!
EOF
@end example

@noindent
might produce the output

@example
Panama!
A man,
a canal:
a plan,
@end example

@noindent
Similarly, the command:

@example
shuf -e clubs hearts diamonds spades
@end example

@noindent
might output:

@example
clubs
diamonds
spades
hearts
@end example

@noindent
and the command @samp{shuf -i 1-4} might output:

@example
4
2
1
3
@end example

@noindent
These examples all have four input lines, so @command{shuf} might
produce any of the twenty-four possible permutations of the input.  In
general, if there are @var{N} input lines, there are @var{N}! (i.e.,
@var{N} factorial, or @var{N} * (@var{N} - 1) * @dots{} * 1) possible
output permutations.

@exitstatus


@node uniq invocation
@section @command{uniq}: Uniquify files

@pindex uniq
@cindex uniquify files

@command{uniq} writes the unique lines in the given @file{input}, or
standard input if nothing is given or for an @var{input} name of
@samp{-}.  Synopsis:

@example
uniq [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{input} [@var{output}]]
@end example

By default, @command{uniq} prints its input lines, except that
it discards all but the first of adjacent repeated lines, so that
no output lines are repeated.  Optionally, it can instead discard
lines that are not repeated, or all repeated lines.

The input need not be sorted, but repeated input lines are detected
only if they are adjacent.  If you want to discard non-adjacent
duplicate lines, perhaps you want to use @code{sort -u}.
@xref{sort invocation}.

@vindex LC_COLLATE
Comparisons use the character collating sequence specified by the
@env{LC_COLLATE} locale category.

If no @var{output} file is specified, @command{uniq} writes to standard
output.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -f @var{n}
@itemx --skip-fields=@var{n}
@opindex -f
@opindex --skip-fields
Skip @var{n} fields on each line before checking for uniqueness.  Use
a null string for comparison if a line has fewer than @var{n} fields.  Fields
are sequences of non-space non-tab characters that are separated from
each other by at least one space or tab.

For compatibility @command{uniq} supports an obsolete option syntax
@option{-@var{n}}.  New scripts should use @option{-f @var{n}} instead.

@item -s @var{n}
@itemx --skip-chars=@var{n}
@opindex -s
@opindex --skip-chars
Skip @var{n} characters before checking for uniqueness.  Use a null string
for comparison if a line has fewer than @var{n} characters.  If you use both
the field and character skipping options, fields are skipped over first.

@vindex _POSIX2_VERSION
On older systems, @command{uniq} supports an obsolete option syntax
@option{+@var{n}}.
This obsolete behavior can be enabled or disabled with the
@env{_POSIX2_VERSION} environment variable (@pxref{Standards
conformance}), but portable scripts should avoid commands whose
behavior depends on this variable.
For example, use @samp{uniq ./+10} or @samp{uniq -s 10} rather than
the ambiguous @samp{uniq +10}.

@item -c
@itemx --count
@opindex -c
@opindex --count
Print the number of times each line occurred along with the line.

@item -i
@itemx --ignore-case
@opindex -i
@opindex --ignore-case
Ignore differences in case when comparing lines.

@item -d
@itemx --repeated
@opindex -d
@opindex --repeated
@cindex repeated lines, outputting
Discard lines that are not repeated.  When used by itself, this option
causes @command{uniq} to print the first copy of each repeated line,
and nothing else.

@item -D
@itemx --all-repeated[=@var{delimit-method}]
@opindex -D
@opindex --all-repeated
@cindex all repeated lines, outputting
Do not discard the second and subsequent repeated input lines,
but discard lines that are not repeated.
This option is useful mainly in conjunction with other options e.g.,
to ignore case or to compare only selected fields.
The optional @var{delimit-method} tells how to delimit
groups of repeated lines, and must be one of the following:

@table @samp

@item none
Do not delimit groups of repeated lines.
This is equivalent to @option{--all-repeated} (@option{-D}).

@item prepend
Output a newline before each group of repeated lines.

@item separate
Separate groups of repeated lines with a single newline.
This is the same as using @samp{prepend}, except that
there is no newline before the first group, and hence
may be better suited for output direct to users.
@end table

Note that when groups are delimited and the input stream contains
two or more consecutive blank lines, then the output is ambiguous.
To avoid that, filter the input through @samp{tr -s '\n'} to replace
each sequence of consecutive newlines with a single newline.

This is a @sc{gnu} extension.
@c FIXME: give an example showing *how* it's useful

@item -u
@itemx --unique
@opindex -u
@opindex --unique
@cindex unique lines, outputting
Discard the first repeated line.  When used by itself, this option
causes @command{uniq} to print unique lines, and nothing else.

@item -w @var{n}
@itemx --check-chars=@var{n}
@opindex -w
@opindex --check-chars
Compare at most @var{n} characters on each line (after skipping any specified
fields and characters).  By default the entire rest of the lines are
compared.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node comm invocation
@section @command{comm}: Compare two sorted files line by line

@pindex comm
@cindex line-by-line comparison
@cindex comparing sorted files

@command{comm} writes to standard output lines that are common, and lines
that are unique, to two input files; a file name of @samp{-} means
standard input.  Synopsis:

@example
comm [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{file1} @var{file2}
@end example

@vindex LC_COLLATE
Before @command{comm} can be used, the input files must be sorted using the
collating sequence specified by the @env{LC_COLLATE} locale.
If an input file ends in a non-newline
character, a newline is silently appended.  The @command{sort} command with
no options always outputs a file that is suitable input to @command{comm}.

@cindex differing lines
@cindex common lines
With no options, @command{comm} produces three-column output.  Column one
contains lines unique to @var{file1}, column two contains lines unique
to @var{file2}, and column three contains lines common to both files.
Columns are separated by a single TAB character.
@c FIXME: when there's an option to supply an alternative separator
@c string, append `by default' to the above sentence.

@opindex -1
@opindex -2
@opindex -3
The options @option{-1}, @option{-2}, and @option{-3} suppress printing of
the corresponding columns.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

Unlike some other comparison utilities, @command{comm} has an exit
status that does not depend on the result of the comparison.
Upon normal completion @command{comm} produces an exit code of zero.
If there is an error it exits with nonzero status.


@node tsort invocation
@section @command{tsort}: Topological sort

@pindex tsort
@cindex topological sort

@command{tsort} performs a topological sort on the given @var{file}, or
standard input if no input file is given or for a @var{file} of
@samp{-}.  For more details and some history, see @ref{tsort background}.
Synopsis:

@example
tsort [@var{option}] [@var{file}]
@end example

@command{tsort} reads its input as pairs of strings, separated by blanks,
indicating a partial ordering.  The output is a total ordering that
corresponds to the given partial ordering.

For example

@example
tsort <<EOF
a b c
d
e f
b c d e
EOF
@end example

@noindent
will produce the output

@example
a
b
c
d
e
f
@end example

Consider a more realistic example.
You have a large set of functions all in one file, and they may all be
declared static except one.  Currently that one (say @code{main}) is the
first function defined in the file, and the ones it calls directly follow
it, followed by those they call, etc.  Let's say that you are determined
to take advantage of prototypes, so you have to choose between declaring
all of those functions (which means duplicating a lot of information from
the definitions) and rearranging the functions so that as many as possible
are defined before they are used.  One way to automate the latter process
is to get a list for each function of the functions it calls directly.
Many programs can generate such lists.  They describe a call graph.
Consider the following list, in which a given line indicates that the
function on the left calls the one on the right directly.

@example
main parse_options
main tail_file
main tail_forever
tail_file pretty_name
tail_file write_header
tail_file tail
tail_forever recheck
tail_forever pretty_name
tail_forever write_header
tail_forever dump_remainder
tail tail_lines
tail tail_bytes
tail_lines start_lines
tail_lines dump_remainder
tail_lines file_lines
tail_lines pipe_lines
tail_bytes xlseek
tail_bytes start_bytes
tail_bytes dump_remainder
tail_bytes pipe_bytes
file_lines dump_remainder
recheck pretty_name
@end example

then you can use @command{tsort} to produce an ordering of those
functions that satisfies your requirement.

@example
example$ tsort call-graph | tac
dump_remainder
start_lines
file_lines
pipe_lines
xlseek
start_bytes
pipe_bytes
tail_lines
tail_bytes
pretty_name
write_header
tail
recheck
parse_options
tail_file
tail_forever
main
@end example

@command{tsort} detects any cycles in the input and writes the first cycle
encountered to standard error.

Note that for a given partial ordering, generally there is no unique
total ordering.  In the context of the call graph above, the function
@code{parse_options} may be placed anywhere in the list as long as it
precedes @code{main}.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.

@node tsort background
@section @command{tsort}: Background

@command{tsort} exists because very early versions of the Unix linker processed
an archive file exactly once, and in order.  As @command{ld} read each object
in the archive, it decided whether it was needed in the program based on
whether it defined any symbols which were undefined at that point in
the link.

This meant that dependencies within the archive had to be handled
specially.  For example, @code{scanf} probably calls @code{read}.  That means
that in a single pass through an archive, it was important for @code{scanf.o}
to appear before read.o, because otherwise a program which calls
@code{scanf} but not @code{read} might end up with an unexpected unresolved
reference to @code{read}.

The way to address this problem was to first generate a set of
dependencies of one object file on another.  This was done by a shell
script called @command{lorder}.  The GNU tools don't provide a version of
lorder, as far as I know, but you can still find it in BSD
distributions.

Then you ran @command{tsort} over the @command{lorder} output, and you used the
resulting sort to define the order in which you added objects to the archive.

This whole procedure has been obsolete since about 1980, because
Unix archives now contain a symbol table (traditionally built by
@command{ranlib}, now generally built by @command{ar} itself), and the Unix
linker uses the symbol table to effectively make multiple passes over
an archive file.

Anyhow, that's where tsort came from.  To solve an old problem with
the way the linker handled archive files, which has since been solved
in different ways.

@exitstatus


@node ptx invocation
@section @command{ptx}: Produce permuted indexes

@pindex ptx

@command{ptx} reads a text file and essentially produces a permuted index, with
each keyword in its context.  The calling sketch is either one of:

@example
ptx [@var{option} @dots{}] [@var{file} @dots{}]
ptx -G [@var{option} @dots{}] [@var{input} [@var{output}]]
@end example

The @option{-G} (or its equivalent: @option{--traditional}) option disables
all @sc{gnu} extensions and reverts to traditional mode, thus introducing some
limitations and changing several of the program's default option values.
When @option{-G} is not specified, @sc{gnu} extensions are always enabled.
@sc{gnu} extensions to @command{ptx} are documented wherever appropriate in this
document.  For the full list, see @xref{Compatibility in ptx}.

Individual options are explained in the following sections.

When @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled, there may be zero, one or several
@var{file}s after the options.  If there is no @var{file}, the program
reads the standard input.  If there is one or several @var{file}s, they
give the name of input files which are all read in turn, as if all the
input files were concatenated.  However, there is a full contextual
break between each file and, when automatic referencing is requested,
file names and line numbers refer to individual text input files.  In
all cases, the program outputs the permuted index to the standard
output.

When @sc{gnu} extensions are @emph{not} enabled, that is, when the program
operates in traditional mode, there may be zero, one or two parameters
besides the options.  If there are no parameters, the program reads the
standard input and outputs the permuted index to the standard output.
If there is only one parameter, it names the text @var{input} to be read
instead of the standard input.  If two parameters are given, they give
respectively the name of the @var{input} file to read and the name of
the @var{output} file to produce.  @emph{Be very careful} to note that,
in this case, the contents of file given by the second parameter is
destroyed.  This behavior is dictated by System V @command{ptx}
compatibility; @sc{gnu} Standards normally discourage output parameters not
introduced by an option.

Note that for @emph{any} file named as the value of an option or as an
input text file, a single dash @kbd{-} may be used, in which case
standard input is assumed.  However, it would not make sense to use this
convention more than once per program invocation.

@menu
* General options in ptx::      Options which affect general program behavior.
* Charset selection in ptx::    Underlying character set considerations.
* Input processing in ptx::     Input fields, contexts, and keyword selection.
* Output formatting in ptx::    Types of output format, and sizing the fields.
* Compatibility in ptx::
@end menu


@node General options in ptx
@subsection General options

@table @samp

@item -G
@itemx --traditional
As already explained, this option disables all @sc{gnu} extensions to
@command{ptx} and switches to traditional mode.

@item --help
Print a short help on standard output, then exit without further
processing.

@item --version
Print the program version on standard output, then exit without further
processing.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node Charset selection in ptx
@subsection Charset selection

@c FIXME:  People don't necessarily know what an IBM-PC was these days.
As it is set up now, the program assumes that the input file is coded
using 8-bit @acronym{ISO} 8859-1 code, also known as Latin-1 character set,
@emph{unless} it is compiled for MS-DOS, in which case it uses the
character set of the IBM-PC@.  (@sc{gnu} @command{ptx} is not known to work on
smaller MS-DOS machines anymore.)  Compared to 7-bit @acronym{ASCII}, the set
of characters which are letters is different; this alters the behavior
of regular expression matching.  Thus, the default regular expression
for a keyword allows foreign or diacriticized letters.  Keyword sorting,
however, is still crude; it obeys the underlying character set ordering
quite blindly.

@table @samp

@item -f
@itemx --ignore-case
Fold lower case letters to upper case for sorting.

@end table


@node Input processing in ptx
@subsection Word selection and input processing

@table @samp

@item -b @var{file}
@itemx --break-file=@var{file}

This option provides an alternative (to @option{-W}) method of describing
which characters make up words.  It introduces the name of a
file which contains a list of characters which can@emph{not} be part of
one word; this file is called the @dfn{Break file}.  Any character which
is not part of the Break file is a word constituent.  If both options
@option{-b} and @option{-W} are specified, then @option{-W} has precedence and
@option{-b} is ignored.

When @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled, the only way to avoid newline as a
break character is to write all the break characters in the file with no
newline at all, not even at the end of the file.  When @sc{gnu} extensions
are disabled, spaces, tabs and newlines are always considered as break
characters even if not included in the Break file.

@item -i @var{file}
@itemx --ignore-file=@var{file}

The file associated with this option contains a list of words which will
never be taken as keywords in concordance output.  It is called the
@dfn{Ignore file}.  The file contains exactly one word in each line; the
end of line separation of words is not subject to the value of the
@option{-S} option.

@item -o @var{file}
@itemx --only-file=@var{file}

The file associated with this option contains a list of words which will
be retained in concordance output; any word not mentioned in this file
is ignored.  The file is called the @dfn{Only file}.  The file contains
exactly one word in each line; the end of line separation of words is
not subject to the value of the @option{-S} option.

There is no default for the Only file.  When both an Only file and an
Ignore file are specified, a word is considered a keyword only
if it is listed in the Only file and not in the Ignore file.

@item -r
@itemx --references

On each input line, the leading sequence of non-white space characters will be
taken to be a reference that has the purpose of identifying this input
line in the resulting permuted index.  For more information about reference
production, see @xref{Output formatting in ptx}.
Using this option changes the default value for option @option{-S}.

Using this option, the program does not try very hard to remove
references from contexts in output, but it succeeds in doing so
@emph{when} the context ends exactly at the newline.  If option
@option{-r} is used with @option{-S} default value, or when @sc{gnu} extensions
are disabled, this condition is always met and references are completely
excluded from the output contexts.

@item -S @var{regexp}
@itemx --sentence-regexp=@var{regexp}

This option selects which regular expression will describe the end of a
line or the end of a sentence.  In fact, this regular expression is not
the only distinction between end of lines or end of sentences, and input
line boundaries have no special significance outside this option.  By
default, when @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled and if @option{-r} option is not
used, end of sentences are used.  In this case, this @var{regex} is
imported from @sc{gnu} Emacs:

@example
[.?!][]\"')@}]*\\($\\|\t\\|  \\)[ \t\n]*
@end example

Whenever @sc{gnu} extensions are disabled or if @option{-r} option is used, end
of lines are used; in this case, the default @var{regexp} is just:

@example
\n
@end example

Using an empty @var{regexp} is equivalent to completely disabling end of
line or end of sentence recognition.  In this case, the whole file is
considered to be a single big line or sentence.  The user might want to
disallow all truncation flag generation as well, through option @option{-F
""}.  @xref{Regexps, , Syntax of Regular Expressions, emacs, The GNU Emacs
Manual}.

When the keywords happen to be near the beginning of the input line or
sentence, this often creates an unused area at the beginning of the
output context line; when the keywords happen to be near the end of the
input line or sentence, this often creates an unused area at the end of
the output context line.  The program tries to fill those unused areas
by wrapping around context in them; the tail of the input line or
sentence is used to fill the unused area on the left of the output line;
the head of the input line or sentence is used to fill the unused area
on the right of the output line.

As a matter of convenience to the user, many usual backslashed escape
sequences from the C language are recognized and converted to the
corresponding characters by @command{ptx} itself.

@item -W @var{regexp}
@itemx --word-regexp=@var{regexp}

This option selects which regular expression will describe each keyword.
By default, if @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled, a word is a sequence of
letters; the @var{regexp} used is @samp{\w+}.  When @sc{gnu} extensions are
disabled, a word is by default anything which ends with a space, a tab
or a newline; the @var{regexp} used is @samp{[^ \t\n]+}.

An empty @var{regexp} is equivalent to not using this option.
@xref{Regexps, , Syntax of Regular Expressions, emacs, The GNU Emacs
Manual}.

As a matter of convenience to the user, many usual backslashed escape
sequences, as found in the C language, are recognized and converted to
the corresponding characters by @command{ptx} itself.

@end table


@node Output formatting in ptx
@subsection Output formatting

Output format is mainly controlled by the @option{-O} and @option{-T} options
described in the table below.  When neither @option{-O} nor @option{-T} are
selected, and if @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled, the program chooses an
output format suitable for a dumb terminal.  Each keyword occurrence is
output to the center of one line, surrounded by its left and right
contexts.  Each field is properly justified, so the concordance output
can be readily observed.  As a special feature, if automatic
references are selected by option @option{-A} and are output before the
left context, that is, if option @option{-R} is @emph{not} selected, then
a colon is added after the reference; this nicely interfaces with @sc{gnu}
Emacs @code{next-error} processing.  In this default output format, each
white space character, like newline and tab, is merely changed to
exactly one space, with no special attempt to compress consecutive
spaces.  This might change in the future.  Except for those white space
characters, every other character of the underlying set of 256
characters is transmitted verbatim.

Output format is further controlled by the following options.

@table @samp

@item -g @var{number}
@itemx --gap-size=@var{number}

Select the size of the minimum white space gap between the fields on the
output line.

@item -w @var{number}
@itemx --width=@var{number}

Select the maximum output width of each final line.  If references are
used, they are included or excluded from the maximum output width
depending on the value of option @option{-R}.  If this option is not
selected, that is, when references are output before the left context,
the maximum output width takes into account the maximum length of all
references.  If this option is selected, that is, when references are
output after the right context, the maximum output width does not take
into account the space taken by references, nor the gap that precedes
them.

@item -A
@itemx --auto-reference

Select automatic references.  Each input line will have an automatic
reference made up of the file name and the line ordinal, with a single
colon between them.  However, the file name will be empty when standard
input is being read.  If both @option{-A} and @option{-r} are selected, then
the input reference is still read and skipped, but the automatic
reference is used at output time, overriding the input reference.

@item -R
@itemx --right-side-refs

In the default output format, when option @option{-R} is not used, any
references produced by the effect of options @option{-r} or @option{-A} are
placed to the far right of output lines, after the right context.  With
default output format, when the @option{-R} option is specified, references
are rather placed at the beginning of each output line, before the left
context.  For any other output format, option @option{-R} is
ignored, with one exception:  with @option{-R} the width of references
is @emph{not} taken into account in total output width given by @option{-w}.

This option is automatically selected whenever @sc{gnu} extensions are
disabled.

@item -F @var{string}
@itemx --flac-truncation=@var{string}

This option will request that any truncation in the output be reported
using the string @var{string}.  Most output fields theoretically extend
towards the beginning or the end of the current line, or current
sentence, as selected with option @option{-S}.  But there is a maximum
allowed output line width, changeable through option @option{-w}, which is
further divided into space for various output fields.  When a field has
to be truncated because it cannot extend beyond the beginning or the end of
the current line to fit in, then a truncation occurs.  By default,
the string used is a single slash, as in @option{-F /}.

@var{string} may have more than one character, as in @option{-F ...}.
Also, in the particular case when @var{string} is empty (@option{-F ""}),
truncation flagging is disabled, and no truncation marks are appended in
this case.

As a matter of convenience to the user, many usual backslashed escape
sequences, as found in the C language, are recognized and converted to
the corresponding characters by @command{ptx} itself.

@item -M @var{string}
@itemx --macro-name=@var{string}

Select another @var{string} to be used instead of @samp{xx}, while
generating output suitable for @command{nroff}, @command{troff} or @TeX{}.

@item -O
@itemx --format=roff

Choose an output format suitable for @command{nroff} or @command{troff}
processing.  Each output line will look like:

@smallexample
.xx "@var{tail}" "@var{before}" "@var{keyword_and_after}" "@var{head}" "@var{ref}"
@end smallexample

so it will be possible to write a @samp{.xx} roff macro to take care of
the output typesetting.  This is the default output format when @sc{gnu}
extensions are disabled.  Option @option{-M} can be used to change
@samp{xx} to another macro name.

In this output format, each non-graphical character, like newline and
tab, is merely changed to exactly one space, with no special attempt to
compress consecutive spaces.  Each quote character: @kbd{"} is doubled
so it will be correctly processed by @command{nroff} or @command{troff}.

@item -T
@itemx --format=tex

Choose an output format suitable for @TeX{} processing.  Each output
line will look like:

@smallexample
\xx @{@var{tail}@}@{@var{before}@}@{@var{keyword}@}@{@var{after}@}@{@var{head}@}@{@var{ref}@}
@end smallexample

@noindent
so it will be possible to write a @code{\xx} definition to take care of
the output typesetting.  Note that when references are not being
produced, that is, neither option @option{-A} nor option @option{-r} is
selected, the last parameter of each @code{\xx} call is inhibited.
Option @option{-M} can be used to change @samp{xx} to another macro
name.

In this output format, some special characters, like @kbd{$}, @kbd{%},
@kbd{&}, @kbd{#} and @kbd{_} are automatically protected with a
backslash.  Curly brackets @kbd{@{}, @kbd{@}} are protected with a
backslash and a pair of dollar signs (to force mathematical mode).  The
backslash itself produces the sequence @code{\backslash@{@}}.
Circumflex and tilde diacritical marks produce the sequence @code{^\@{ @}} and
@code{~\@{ @}} respectively.  Other diacriticized characters of the
underlying character set produce an appropriate @TeX{} sequence as far
as possible.  The other non-graphical characters, like newline and tab,
and all other characters which are not part of @acronym{ASCII}, are merely
changed to exactly one space, with no special attempt to compress
consecutive spaces.  Let me know how to improve this special character
processing for @TeX{}.

@end table


@node Compatibility in ptx
@subsection The @sc{gnu} extensions to @command{ptx}

This version of @command{ptx} contains a few features which do not exist in
System V @command{ptx}.  These extra features are suppressed by using the
@option{-G} command line option, unless overridden by other command line
options.  Some @sc{gnu} extensions cannot be recovered by overriding, so the
simple rule is to avoid @option{-G} if you care about @sc{gnu} extensions.
Here are the differences between this program and System V @command{ptx}.

@itemize @bullet

@item
This program can read many input files at once, it always writes the
resulting concordance on standard output.  On the other hand, System V
@command{ptx} reads only one file and sends the result to standard output
or, if a second @var{file} parameter is given on the command, to that
@var{file}.

Having output parameters not introduced by options is a dangerous
practice which @sc{gnu} avoids as far as possible.  So, for using @command{ptx}
portably between @sc{gnu} and System V, you should always use it with a
single input file, and always expect the result on standard output.  You
might also want to automatically configure in a @option{-G} option to
@command{ptx} calls in products using @command{ptx}, if the configurator finds
that the installed @command{ptx} accepts @option{-G}.

@item
The only options available in System V @command{ptx} are options @option{-b},
@option{-f}, @option{-g}, @option{-i}, @option{-o}, @option{-r}, @option{-t} and
@option{-w}.  All other options are @sc{gnu} extensions and are not repeated in
this enumeration.  Moreover, some options have a slightly different
meaning when @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled, as explained below.

@item
By default, concordance output is not formatted for @command{troff} or
@command{nroff}.  It is rather formatted for a dumb terminal.  @command{troff}
or @command{nroff} output may still be selected through option @option{-O}.

@item
Unless @option{-R} option is used, the maximum reference width is
subtracted from the total output line width.  With @sc{gnu} extensions
disabled, width of references is not taken into account in the output
line width computations.

@item
All 256 bytes, even null bytes, are always read and processed from
input file with no adverse effect, even if @sc{gnu} extensions are disabled.
However, System V @command{ptx} does not accept 8-bit characters, a few
control characters are rejected, and the tilde @kbd{~} is also rejected.

@item
Input line length is only limited by available memory, even if @sc{gnu}
extensions are disabled.  However, System V @command{ptx} processes only
the first 200 characters in each line.

@item
The break (non-word) characters default to be every character except all
letters of the underlying character set, diacriticized or not.  When @sc{gnu}
extensions are disabled, the break characters default to space, tab and
newline only.

@item
The program makes better use of output line width.  If @sc{gnu} extensions
are disabled, the program rather tries to imitate System V @command{ptx},
but still, there are some slight disposition glitches this program does
not completely reproduce.

@item
The user can specify both an Ignore file and an Only file.  This is not
allowed with System V @command{ptx}.

@end itemize


@node Operating on fields within a line
@chapter Operating on fields within a line

@menu
* cut invocation::              Print selected parts of lines.
* paste invocation::            Merge lines of files.
* join invocation::             Join lines on a common field.
@end menu


@node cut invocation
@section @command{cut}: Print selected parts of lines

@pindex cut
@command{cut} writes to standard output selected parts of each line of each
input file, or standard input if no files are given or for a file name of
@samp{-}.  Synopsis:

@example
cut [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

In the table which follows, the @var{byte-list}, @var{character-list},
and @var{field-list} are one or more numbers or ranges (two numbers
separated by a dash) separated by commas.  Bytes, characters, and
fields are numbered starting at 1.  Incomplete ranges may be
given: @option{-@var{m}} means @samp{1-@var{m}}; @samp{@var{n}-} means
@samp{@var{n}} through end of line or last field.  The list elements
can be repeated, can overlap, and can be specified in any order; but
the selected input is written in the same order that it is read, and
is written exactly once.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common
options}.

@table @samp

@item -b @var{byte-list}
@itemx --bytes=@var{byte-list}
@opindex -b
@opindex --bytes
Select for printing only the bytes in positions listed in
@var{byte-list}.  Tabs and backspaces are treated like any other
character; they take up 1 byte.  If an output delimiter is specified,
(see the description of @option{--output-delimiter}), then output that
string between ranges of selected bytes.

@item -c @var{character-list}
@itemx --characters=@var{character-list}
@opindex -c
@opindex --characters
Select for printing only the characters in positions listed in
@var{character-list}.  The same as @option{-b} for now, but
internationalization will change that.  Tabs and backspaces are
treated like any other character; they take up 1 character.  If an
output delimiter is specified, (see the description of
@option{--output-delimiter}), then output that string between ranges
of selected bytes.

@item -f @var{field-list}
@itemx --fields=@var{field-list}
@opindex -f
@opindex --fields
Select for printing only the fields listed in @var{field-list}.
Fields are separated by a TAB character by default.  Also print any
line that contains no delimiter character, unless the
@option{--only-delimited} (@option{-s}) option is specified

@item -d @var{input_delim_byte}
@itemx --delimiter=@var{input_delim_byte}
@opindex -d
@opindex --delimiter
With @option{-f}, use the first byte of @var{input_delim_byte} as
the input fields separator (default is TAB).

@item -n
@opindex -n
Do not split multi-byte characters (no-op for now).

@item -s
@itemx --only-delimited
@opindex -s
@opindex --only-delimited
For @option{-f}, do not print lines that do not contain the field separator
character.  Normally, any line without a field separator is printed verbatim.

@item --output-delimiter=@var{output_delim_string}
@opindex --output-delimiter
With @option{-f}, output fields are separated by @var{output_delim_string}.
The default with @option{-f} is to use the input delimiter.
When using @option{-b} or @option{-c} to select ranges of byte or
character offsets (as opposed to ranges of fields),
output @var{output_delim_string} between non-overlapping
ranges of selected bytes.

@item --complement
@opindex --complement
This option is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
Select for printing the complement of the bytes, characters or fields
selected with the @option{-b}, @option{-c} or @option{-f} options.
In other words, do @emph{not} print the bytes, characters or fields
specified via those options.  This option is useful when you have
many fields and want to print all but a few of them.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node paste invocation
@section @command{paste}: Merge lines of files

@pindex paste
@cindex merging files

@command{paste} writes to standard output lines consisting of sequentially
corresponding lines of each given file, separated by a TAB character.
Standard input is used for a file name of @samp{-} or if no input files
are given.

For example:

@example
$ cat num2
1
2
$ cat let3
a
b
c
$ paste num2 let3
1       a
2       b
       @ c
@end example

Synopsis:

@example
paste [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -s
@itemx --serial
@opindex -s
@opindex --serial
Paste the lines of one file at a time rather than one line from each
file.  Using the above example data:

@example
$ paste -s num2 let3
1       2
a       b       c
@end example

@item -d @var{delim-list}
@itemx --delimiters=@var{delim-list}
@opindex -d
@opindex --delimiters
Consecutively use the characters in @var{delim-list} instead of
TAB to separate merged lines.  When @var{delim-list} is
exhausted, start again at its beginning.  Using the above example data:

@example
$ paste -d '%_' num2 let3 num2
1%a_1
2%b_2
%c_
@end example

@end table

@exitstatus


@node join invocation
@section @command{join}: Join lines on a common field

@pindex join
@cindex common field, joining on

@command{join} writes to standard output a line for each pair of input
lines that have identical join fields.  Synopsis:

@example
join [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{file1} @var{file2}
@end example

Either @var{file1} or @var{file2} (but not both) can be @samp{-},
meaning standard input.  @var{file1} and @var{file2} should be
sorted on the join fields.

@vindex LC_COLLATE
Normally, the sort order is that of the
collating sequence specified by the @env{LC_COLLATE} locale.  Unless
the @option{-t} option is given, the sort comparison ignores blanks at
the start of the join field, as in @code{sort -b}.  If the
@option{--ignore-case} option is given, the sort comparison ignores
the case of characters in the join field, as in @code{sort -f}.

The @command{sort} and @command{join} commands should use consistent
locales and options if the output of @command{sort} is fed to
@command{join}.  You can use a command like @samp{sort -k 1b,1} to
sort a file on its default join field, but if you select a non-default
locale, join field, separator, or comparison options, then you should
do so consistently between @command{join} and @command{sort}.

As a @acronym{GNU} extension, if the input has no unpairable lines the
sort order can be any order that considers two fields to be equal if and
only if the sort comparison described above considers them to be equal.
For example:

@example
$ cat file1
a a1
c c1
b b1
$ cat file2
a a2
c c2
b b2
$ join file1 file2
a a1 a2
c c1 c2
b b1 b2
@end example

The defaults are:
@itemize
@item the join field is the first field in each line;
@item fields in the input are separated by one or more blanks, with leading
      blanks on the line ignored;
@item fields in the output are separated by a space;
@item each output line consists of the join field, the remaining
fields from @var{file1}, then the remaining fields from @var{file2}.
@end itemize

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -a @var{file-number}
@opindex -a
Print a line for each unpairable line in file @var{file-number} (either
@samp{1} or @samp{2}), in addition to the normal output.

@item -e @var{string}
@opindex -e
Replace those output fields that are missing in the input with
@var{string}.

@item -i
@itemx --ignore-case
@opindex -i
@opindex --ignore-case
Ignore differences in case when comparing keys.
With this option, the lines of the input files must be ordered in the same way.
Use @samp{sort -f} to produce this ordering.

@item -1 @var{field}
@opindex -1
Join on field @var{field} (a positive integer) of file 1.

@item -2 @var{field}
@opindex -2
Join on field @var{field} (a positive integer) of file 2.

@item -j @var{field}
Equivalent to @option{-1 @var{field} -2 @var{field}}.

@item -o @var{field-list}
Construct each output line according to the format in @var{field-list}.
Each element in @var{field-list} is either the single character @samp{0} or
has the form @var{m.n} where the file number, @var{m}, is @samp{1} or
@samp{2} and @var{n} is a positive field number.

A field specification of @samp{0} denotes the join field.
In most cases, the functionality of the @samp{0} field spec
may be reproduced using the explicit @var{m.n} that corresponds
to the join field.  However, when printing unpairable lines
(using either of the @option{-a} or @option{-v} options), there is no way
to specify the join field using @var{m.n} in @var{field-list}
if there are unpairable lines in both files.
To give @command{join} that functionality, @acronym{POSIX} invented the @samp{0}
field specification notation.

The elements in @var{field-list}
are separated by commas or blanks.
Blank separators typically need to be quoted for the shell.  For
example, the commands @samp{join -o 1.2,2.2} and @samp{join -o '1.2
2.2'} are equivalent.

All output lines---including those printed because of any -a or -v
option---are subject to the specified @var{field-list}.

@item -t @var{char}
Use character @var{char} as the input and output field separator.
Treat as significant each occurrence of @var{char} in the input file.
Use @samp{sort -t @var{char}}, without the @option{-b} option of
@samp{sort}, to produce this ordering.

@item -v @var{file-number}
Print a line for each unpairable line in file @var{file-number}
(either @samp{1} or @samp{2}), instead of the normal output.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node Operating on characters
@chapter Operating on characters

@cindex operating on characters

This commands operate on individual characters.

@menu
* tr invocation::               Translate, squeeze, and/or delete characters.
* expand invocation::           Convert tabs to spaces.
* unexpand invocation::         Convert spaces to tabs.
@end menu


@node tr invocation
@section @command{tr}: Translate, squeeze, and/or delete characters

@pindex tr

Synopsis:

@example
tr [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{set1} [@var{set2}]
@end example

@command{tr} copies standard input to standard output, performing
one of the following operations:

@itemize @bullet
@item
translate, and optionally squeeze repeated characters in the result,
@item
squeeze repeated characters,
@item
delete characters,
@item
delete characters, then squeeze repeated characters from the result.
@end itemize

The @var{set1} and (if given) @var{set2} arguments define ordered
sets of characters, referred to below as @var{set1} and @var{set2}.  These
sets are the characters of the input that @command{tr} operates on.
The @option{--complement} (@option{-c}, @option{-C}) option replaces
@var{set1} with its
complement (all of the characters that are not in @var{set1}).

Currently @command{tr} fully supports only single-byte characters.
Eventually it will support multibyte characters; when it does, the
@option{-C} option will cause it to complement the set of characters,
whereas @option{-c} will cause it to complement the set of values.
This distinction will matter only when some values are not characters,
and this is possible only in locales using multibyte encodings when
the input contains encoding errors.

The program accepts the @option{--help} and @option{--version}
options.  @xref{Common options}.  Options must precede operands.

@exitstatus

@menu
* Character sets::              Specifying sets of characters.
* Translating::                 Changing one set of characters to another.
* Squeezing::                   Squeezing repeats and deleting.
@end menu


@node Character sets
@subsection Specifying sets of characters

@cindex specifying sets of characters

The format of the @var{set1} and @var{set2} arguments resembles
the format of regular expressions; however, they are not regular
expressions, only lists of characters.  Most characters simply
represent themselves in these strings, but the strings can contain
the shorthands listed below, for convenience.  Some of them can be
used only in @var{set1} or @var{set2}, as noted below.

@table @asis

@item Backslash escapes
@cindex backslash escapes

The following backslash escape sequences are recognized:

@table @samp
@item \a
Control-G.
@item \b
Control-H.
@item \f
Control-L.
@item \n
Control-J.
@item \r
Control-M.
@item \t
Control-I.
@item \v
Control-K.
@item \@var{ooo}
The character with the value given by @var{ooo}, which is 1 to 3
octal digits,
@item \\
A backslash.
@end table

While a backslash followed by a character not listed above is
interpreted as that character, the backslash also effectively
removes any special significance, so it is useful to escape
@samp{[}, @samp{]}, @samp{*}, and @samp{-}.

@item Ranges
@cindex ranges

The notation @samp{@var{m}-@var{n}} expands to all of the characters
from @var{m} through @var{n}, in ascending order.  @var{m} should
collate before @var{n}; if it doesn't, an error results.  As an example,
@samp{0-9} is the same as @samp{0123456789}.

@sc{gnu} @command{tr} does not support the System V syntax that uses square
brackets to enclose ranges.  Translations specified in that format
sometimes work as expected, since the brackets are often transliterated
to themselves.  However, they should be avoided because they sometimes
behave unexpectedly.  For example, @samp{tr -d '[0-9]'} deletes brackets
as well as digits.

Many historically common and even accepted uses of ranges are not
portable.  For example, on @acronym{EBCDIC} hosts using the @samp{A-Z}
range will not do what most would expect because @samp{A} through @samp{Z}
are not contiguous as they are in @acronym{ASCII}.
If you can rely on a @acronym{POSIX} compliant version of @command{tr}, then
the best way to work around this is to use character classes (see below).
Otherwise, it is most portable (and most ugly) to enumerate the members
of the ranges.

@item Repeated characters
@cindex repeated characters

The notation @samp{[@var{c}*@var{n}]} in @var{set2} expands to @var{n}
copies of character @var{c}.  Thus, @samp{[y*6]} is the same as
@samp{yyyyyy}.  The notation @samp{[@var{c}*]} in @var{string2} expands
to as many copies of @var{c} as are needed to make @var{set2} as long as
@var{set1}.  If @var{n} begins with @samp{0}, it is interpreted in
octal, otherwise in decimal.

@item Character classes
@cindex character classes

The notation @samp{[:@var{class}:]} expands to all of the characters in
the (predefined) class @var{class}.  The characters expand in no
particular order, except for the @code{upper} and @code{lower} classes,
which expand in ascending order.  When the @option{--delete} (@option{-d})
and @option{--squeeze-repeats} (@option{-s}) options are both given, any
character class can be used in @var{set2}.  Otherwise, only the
character classes @code{lower} and @code{upper} are accepted in
@var{set2}, and then only if the corresponding character class
(@code{upper} and @code{lower}, respectively) is specified in the same
relative position in @var{set1}.  Doing this specifies case conversion.
The class names are given below; an error results when an invalid class
name is given.

@table @code
@item alnum
@opindex alnum
Letters and digits.
@item alpha
@opindex alpha
Letters.
@item blank
@opindex blank
Horizontal whitespace.
@item cntrl
@opindex cntrl
Control characters.
@item digit
@opindex digit
Digits.
@item graph
@opindex graph
Printable characters, not including space.
@item lower
@opindex lower
Lowercase letters.
@item print
@opindex print
Printable characters, including space.
@item punct
@opindex punct
Punctuation characters.
@item space
@opindex space
Horizontal or vertical whitespace.
@item upper
@opindex upper
Uppercase letters.
@item xdigit
@opindex xdigit
Hexadecimal digits.
@end table

@item Equivalence classes
@cindex equivalence classes

The syntax @samp{[=@var{c}=]} expands to all of the characters that are
equivalent to @var{c}, in no particular order.  Equivalence classes are
a relatively recent invention intended to support non-English alphabets.
But there seems to be no standard way to define them or determine their
contents.  Therefore, they are not fully implemented in @sc{gnu} @command{tr};
each character's equivalence class consists only of that character,
which is of no particular use.

@end table


@node Translating
@subsection Translating

@cindex translating characters

@command{tr} performs translation when @var{set1} and @var{set2} are
both given and the @option{--delete} (@option{-d}) option is not given.
@command{tr} translates each character of its input that is in @var{set1}
to the corresponding character in @var{set2}.  Characters not in
@var{set1} are passed through unchanged.  When a character appears more
than once in @var{set1} and the corresponding characters in @var{set2}
are not all the same, only the final one is used.  For example, these
two commands are equivalent:

@example
tr aaa xyz
tr a z
@end example

A common use of @command{tr} is to convert lowercase characters to
uppercase.  This can be done in many ways.  Here are three of them:

@example
tr abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
tr a-z A-Z
tr '[:lower:]' '[:upper:]'
@end example

@noindent
But note that using ranges like @code{a-z} above is not portable.

When @command{tr} is performing translation, @var{set1} and @var{set2}
typically have the same length.  If @var{set1} is shorter than
@var{set2}, the extra characters at the end of @var{set2} are ignored.

On the other hand, making @var{set1} longer than @var{set2} is not
portable; @acronym{POSIX} says that the result is undefined.  In this situation,
BSD @command{tr} pads @var{set2} to the length of @var{set1} by repeating
the last character of @var{set2} as many times as necessary.  System V
@command{tr} truncates @var{set1} to the length of @var{set2}.

By default, @sc{gnu} @command{tr} handles this case like BSD @command{tr}.
When the @option{--truncate-set1} (@option{-t}) option is given,
@sc{gnu} @command{tr} handles this case like the System V @command{tr}
instead.  This option is ignored for operations other than translation.

Acting like System V @command{tr} in this case breaks the relatively common
BSD idiom:

@example
tr -cs A-Za-z0-9 '\012'
@end example

@noindent
because it converts only zero bytes (the first element in the
complement of @var{set1}), rather than all non-alphanumerics, to
newlines.

@noindent
By the way, the above idiom is not portable because it uses ranges, and
it assumes that the octal code for newline is 012.
Assuming a @acronym{POSIX} compliant @command{tr}, here is a better way to write it:

@example
tr -cs '[:alnum:]' '[\n*]'
@end example


@node Squeezing
@subsection Squeezing repeats and deleting

@cindex squeezing repeat characters
@cindex deleting characters

When given just the @option{--delete} (@option{-d}) option, @command{tr}
removes any input characters that are in @var{set1}.

When given just the @option{--squeeze-repeats} (@option{-s}) option,
@command{tr} replaces each input sequence of a repeated character that
is in @var{set1} with a single occurrence of that character.

When given both @option{--delete} and @option{--squeeze-repeats}, @command{tr}
first performs any deletions using @var{set1}, then squeezes repeats
from any remaining characters using @var{set2}.

The @option{--squeeze-repeats} option may also be used when translating,
in which case @command{tr} first performs translation, then squeezes
repeats from any remaining characters using @var{set2}.

Here are some examples to illustrate various combinations of options:

@itemize @bullet

@item
Remove all zero bytes:

@example
tr -d '\0'
@end example

@item
Put all words on lines by themselves.  This converts all
non-alphanumeric characters to newlines, then squeezes each string
of repeated newlines into a single newline:

@example
tr -cs '[:alnum:]' '[\n*]'
@end example

@item
Convert each sequence of repeated newlines to a single newline:

@example
tr -s '\n'
@end example

@item
Find doubled occurrences of words in a document.
@c Separate the following two "the"s, so typo checkers don't complain.
For example, people often write ``the @w{}the'' with the repeated words
separated by a newline.  The Bourne shell script below works first
by converting each sequence of punctuation and blank characters to a
single newline.  That puts each ``word'' on a line by itself.
Next it maps all uppercase characters to lower case, and finally it
runs @command{uniq} with the @option{-d} option to print out only the words
that were repeated.

@example
#!/bin/sh
cat -- "$@@" \
  | tr -s '[:punct:][:blank:]' '[\n*]' \
  | tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' \
  | uniq -d
@end example

@item
Deleting a small set of characters is usually straightforward.  For example,
to remove all @samp{a}s, @samp{x}s, and @samp{M}s you would do this:

@example
tr -d axM
@end example

However, when @samp{-} is one of those characters, it can be tricky because
@samp{-} has special meanings.  Performing the same task as above but also
removing all @samp{-} characters, we might try @code{tr -d -axM}, but
that would fail because @command{tr} would try to interpret @option{-a} as
a command-line option.  Alternatively, we could try putting the hyphen
inside the string, @code{tr -d a-xM}, but that wouldn't work either because
it would make @command{tr} interpret @code{a-x} as the range of characters
@samp{a}@dots{}@samp{x} rather than the three.
One way to solve the problem is to put the hyphen at the end of the list
of characters:

@example
tr -d axM-
@end example

Or you can use @samp{--} to terminate option processing:

@example
tr -d -- -axM
@end example

More generally, use the character class notation @code{[=c=]}
with @samp{-} (or any other character) in place of the @samp{c}:

@example
tr -d '[=-=]axM'
@end example

Note how single quotes are used in the above example to protect the
square brackets from interpretation by a shell.

@end itemize


@node expand invocation
@section @command{expand}: Convert tabs to spaces

@pindex expand
@cindex tabs to spaces, converting
@cindex converting tabs to spaces

@command{expand} writes the contents of each given @var{file}, or standard
input if none are given or for a @var{file} of @samp{-}, to standard
output, with tab characters converted to the appropriate number of
spaces.  Synopsis:

@example
expand [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

By default, @command{expand} converts all tabs to spaces.  It preserves
backspace characters in the output; they decrement the column count for
tab calculations.  The default action is equivalent to @option{-t 8} (set
tabs every 8 columns).

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -t @var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}
@itemx --tabs=@var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}
@opindex -t
@opindex --tabs
@cindex tab stops, setting
If only one tab stop is given, set the tabs @var{tab1} spaces apart
(default is 8).  Otherwise, set the tabs at columns @var{tab1},
@var{tab2}, @dots{} (numbered from 0), and replace any tabs beyond the
last tab stop given with single spaces.  Tab stops can be separated by
blanks as well as by commas.

For compatibility, GNU @command{expand} also accepts the obsolete
option syntax, @option{-@var{t1}[,@var{t2}]@dots{}}.  New scripts
should use @option{-t @var{t1}[,@var{t2}]@dots{}} instead.

@item -i
@itemx --initial
@opindex -i
@opindex --initial
@cindex initial tabs, converting
Only convert initial tabs (those that precede all non-space or non-tab
characters) on each line to spaces.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node unexpand invocation
@section @command{unexpand}: Convert spaces to tabs

@pindex unexpand

@command{unexpand} writes the contents of each given @var{file}, or
standard input if none are given or for a @var{file} of @samp{-}, to
standard output, converting blanks at the beginning of each line into
as many tab characters as needed.  In the default @acronym{POSIX}
locale, a @dfn{blank} is a space or a tab; other locales may specify
additional blank characters.  Synopsis:

@example
unexpand [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

By default, @command{unexpand} converts only initial blanks (those
that precede all non-blank characters) on each line.  It
preserves backspace characters in the output; they decrement the column
count for tab calculations.  By default, tabs are set at every 8th
column.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -t @var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}
@itemx --tabs=@var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}
@opindex -t
@opindex --tabs
If only one tab stop is given, set the tabs @var{tab1} columns apart
instead of the default 8.  Otherwise, set the tabs at columns
@var{tab1}, @var{tab2}, @dots{} (numbered from 0), and leave blanks
beyond the tab stops given unchanged.  Tab stops can be separated by
blanks as well as by commas.  This option implies the @option{-a} option.

For compatibility, GNU @command{unexpand} supports the obsolete option syntax,
@option{-@var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}}, where tab stops must be
separated by commas.  (Unlike @option{-t}, this obsolete option does
not imply @option{-a}.)  New scripts should use @option{--first-only -t
@var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}} instead.

@item -a
@itemx --all
@opindex -a
@opindex --all
Also convert all sequences of two or more blanks just before a tab stop,
even if they occur after non-blank characters in a line.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node Directory listing
@chapter Directory listing

This chapter describes the @command{ls} command and its variants @command{dir}
and @command{vdir}, which list information about files.

@menu
* ls invocation::               List directory contents.
* dir invocation::              Briefly ls.
* vdir invocation::             Verbosely ls.
* dircolors invocation::        Color setup for ls, etc.
@end menu


@node ls invocation
@section @command{ls}: List directory contents

@pindex ls
@cindex directory listing

The @command{ls} program lists information about files (of any type,
including directories).  Options and file arguments can be intermixed
arbitrarily, as usual.

For non-option command-line arguments that are directories, by default
@command{ls} lists the contents of directories, not recursively, and
omitting files with names beginning with @samp{.}.  For other non-option
arguments, by default @command{ls} lists just the file name.  If no
non-option argument is specified, @command{ls} operates on the current
directory, acting as if it had been invoked with a single argument of @samp{.}.

@vindex LC_ALL
By default, the output is sorted alphabetically, according to the locale
settings in effect.@footnote{If you use a non-@acronym{POSIX}
locale (e.g., by setting @env{LC_ALL} to @samp{en_US}), then @command{ls} may
produce output that is sorted differently than you're accustomed to.
In that case, set the @env{LC_ALL} environment variable to @samp{C}.}
If standard output is
a terminal, the output is in columns (sorted vertically) and control
characters are output as question marks; otherwise, the output is listed
one per line and control characters are output as-is.

Because @command{ls} is such a fundamental program, it has accumulated many
options over the years.  They are described in the subsections below;
within each section, options are listed alphabetically (ignoring case).
The division of options into the subsections is not absolute, since some
options affect more than one aspect of @command{ls}'s operation.

@cindex exit status of @command{ls}
Exit status:

@display
0 success
1 minor problems (e.g., a subdirectory was not found)
2 serious trouble (e.g., memory exhausted)
@end display

Also see @ref{Common options}.

@menu
* Which files are listed::
* What information is listed::
* Sorting the output::
* More details about version sort::
* General output formatting::
* Formatting file timestamps::
* Formatting the file names::
@end menu


@node Which files are listed
@subsection Which files are listed

These options determine which files @command{ls} lists information for.
By default, @command{ls} lists files and the contents of any
directories on the command line, except that in directories it ignores
files whose names start with @samp{.}.

@table @samp

@item -a
@itemx --all
@opindex -a
@opindex --all
In directories, do not ignore file names that start with @samp{.}.

@item -A
@itemx --almost-all
@opindex -A
@opindex --almost-all
In directories, do not ignore all file names that start with @samp{.};
ignore only @file{.} and @file{..}.  The @option{--all} (@option{-a})
option overrides this option.

@item -B
@itemx --ignore-backups
@opindex -B
@opindex --ignore-backups
@cindex backup files, ignoring
In directories, ignore files that end with @samp{~}.  This option is
equivalent to @samp{--ignore='*~' --ignore='.*~'}.

@item -d
@itemx --directory
@opindex -d
@opindex --directory
List just the names of directories, as with other types of files, rather
than listing their contents.
@c The following sentence is the same as the one for -F.
Do not follow symbolic links listed on the
command line unless the @option{--dereference-command-line} (@option{-H}),
@option{--dereference} (@option{-L}), or
@option{--dereference-command-line-symlink-to-dir} options are specified.

@item -H
@itemx --dereference-command-line
@opindex -H
@opindex --dereference-command-line
@cindex symbolic links, dereferencing
If a command line argument specifies a symbolic link, show information
for the file the link references rather than for the link itself.

@itemx --dereference-command-line-symlink-to-dir
@opindex --dereference-command-line-symlink-to-dir
@cindex symbolic links, dereferencing
Do not dereference symbolic links, with one exception:
if a command line argument specifies a symbolic link that refers to
a directory, show information for that directory rather than for the
link itself.
This is the default behavior when no other dereferencing-related
option has been specified (@option{--classify} (@option{-F}),
@option{--directory} (@option{-d}),
(@option{-l}),
@option{--dereference} (@option{-L}), or
@option{--dereference-command-line} (@option{-H})).

@item --group-directories-first
@opindex --group-directories-first
Group all the directories before the files and then sort the
directories and the files separately using the selected sort key
(see --sort option).
That is, this option specifies a primary sort key,
and the --sort option specifies a secondary key.

@item --hide=PATTERN
@opindex --hide=@var{pattern}
In directories, ignore files whose names match the shell pattern
@var{pattern}, unless the @option{--all} (@option{-a}) or
@option{--almost-all} (@option{-A}) is also given.  This
option acts like @option{--ignore=@var{pattern}} except that it has no
effect if @option{--all} (@option{-a}) or @option{--almost-all}
(@option{-A}) is also given.

This option can be useful in shell aliases.  For example, if
@command{lx} is an alias for @samp{ls --hide='*~'} and @command{ly} is
an alias for @samp{ls --ignore='*~'}, then the command @samp{lx -A}
lists the file @file{README~} even though @samp{ly -A} would not.

@item -I @var{pattern}
@itemx --ignore=@var{pattern}
@opindex -I
@opindex --ignore=@var{pattern}
In directories, ignore files whose names match the shell pattern
(not regular expression) @var{pattern}.  As
in the shell, an initial @samp{.} in a file name does not match a
wildcard at the start of @var{pattern}.  Sometimes it is useful
to give this option several times.  For example,

@smallexample
$ ls --ignore='.??*' --ignore='.[^.]' --ignore='#*'
@end smallexample

The first option ignores names of length 3 or more that start with @samp{.},
the second ignores all two-character names that start with @samp{.}
except @samp{..}, and the third ignores names that start with @samp{#}.

@item -L
@itemx --dereference
@opindex -L
@opindex --dereference
@cindex symbolic links, dereferencing
When showing file information for a symbolic link, show information
for the file the link references rather than the link itself.
However, even with this option, @command{ls} still prints the name
of the link itself, not the name of the file that the link points to.

@item -R
@itemx --recursive
@opindex -R
@opindex --recursive
@cindex recursive directory listing
@cindex directory listing, recursive
List the contents of all directories recursively.

@end table


@node What information is listed
@subsection What information is listed

These options affect the information that @command{ls} displays.  By
default, only file names are shown.

@table @samp

@item --author
@opindex --author
@cindex hurd, author, printing
List each file's author when producing long format directory listings.
In GNU/Hurd, file authors can differ from their owners, but in other
operating systems the two are the same.

@item -D
@itemx --dired
@opindex -D
@opindex --dired
@cindex dired Emacs mode support
With the long listing (@option{-l}) format, print an additional line after
the main output:

@example
//DIRED// @var{beg1} @var{end1} @var{beg2} @var{end2} @dots{}
@end example

@noindent
The @var{begN} and @var{endN} are unsigned integers that record the
byte position of the beginning and end of each file name in the output.
This makes it easy for Emacs to find the names, even when they contain
unusual characters such as space or newline, without fancy searching.

If directories are being listed recursively (@option{-R}), output a similar
line with offsets for each subdirectory name:

@example
//SUBDIRED// @var{beg1} @var{end1} @dots{}
@end example

Finally, output a line of the form:

@example
//DIRED-OPTIONS// --quoting-style=@var{word}
@end example

@noindent
where @var{word} is the quoting style (@pxref{Formatting the file names}).

Here is an actual example:

@example
$ mkdir -p a/sub/deeper a/sub2
$ touch a/f1 a/f2
$ touch a/sub/deeper/file
$ ls -gloRF --dired a
  a:
  total 8
  -rw-r--r-- 1    0 Jun 10 12:27 f1
  -rw-r--r-- 1    0 Jun 10 12:27 f2
  drwxr-xr-x 3 4096 Jun 10 12:27 sub/
  drwxr-xr-x 2 4096 Jun 10 12:27 sub2/

  a/sub:
  total 4
  drwxr-xr-x 2 4096 Jun 10 12:27 deeper/

  a/sub/deeper:
  total 0
  -rw-r--r-- 1 0 Jun 10 12:27 file

  a/sub2:
  total 0
//DIRED// 48 50 84 86 120 123 158 162 217 223 282 286
//SUBDIRED// 2 3 167 172 228 240 290 296
//DIRED-OPTIONS// --quoting-style=literal
@end example

Note that the pairs of offsets on the @samp{//DIRED//} line above delimit
these names: @file{f1}, @file{f2}, @file{sub}, @file{sub2}, @file{deeper},
@file{file}.
The offsets on the @samp{//SUBDIRED//} line delimit the following
directory names: @file{a}, @file{a/sub}, @file{a/sub/deeper}, @file{a/sub2}.

Here is an example of how to extract the fifth entry name, @samp{deeper},
corresponding to the pair of offsets, 222 and 228:

@example
$ ls -gloRF --dired a > out
$ dd bs=1 skip=222 count=6 < out 2>/dev/null; echo
deeper
@end example

Note that although the listing above includes a trailing slash
for the @samp{deeper} entry, the offsets select the name without
the trailing slash.  However, if you invoke @command{ls} with @option{--dired}
along with an option like @option{--escape} (aka @option{-b}) and operate
on a file whose name contains special characters, notice that the backslash
@emph{is} included:

@example
$ touch 'a b'
$ ls -blog --dired 'a b'
  -rw-r--r-- 1 0 Jun 10 12:28 a\ b
//DIRED// 30 34
//DIRED-OPTIONS// --quoting-style=escape
@end example

If you use a quoting style that adds quote marks
(e.g., @option{--quoting-style=c}), then the offsets include the quote marks.
So beware that the user may select the quoting style via the environment
variable @env{QUOTING_STYLE}.  Hence, applications using @option{--dired}
should either specify an explicit @option{--quoting-style=literal} option
(aka @option{-N} or @option{--literal}) on the command line, or else be
prepared to parse the escaped names.

@item --full-time
@opindex --full-time
Produce long format directory listings, and list times in full.  It is
equivalent to using @option{--format=long} with
@option{--time-style=full-iso} (@pxref{Formatting file timestamps}).

@item -g
@opindex -g
Produce long format directory listings, but don't display owner information.

@item -G
@itemx --no-group
@opindex -G
@opindex --no-group
Inhibit display of group information in a long format directory listing.
(This is the default in some non-@sc{gnu} versions of @command{ls}, so we
provide this option for compatibility.)

@optHumanReadable

@item -i
@itemx --inode
@opindex -i
@opindex --inode
@cindex inode number, printing
Print the inode number (also called the file serial number and index
number) of each file to the left of the file name.  (This number
uniquely identifies each file within a particular file system.)

@item -l
@itemx --format=long
@itemx --format=verbose
@opindex -l
@opindex --format
@opindex long ls @r{format}
@opindex verbose ls @r{format}
In addition to the name of each file, print the file type, file mode bits,
number of hard links, owner name, group name, size, and
timestamp (@pxref{Formatting file timestamps}), normally
the modification time.  Print question marks for information that
cannot be determined.

Normally the size is printed as a byte count without punctuation, but
this can be overridden (@pxref{Block size}).  For example, @option{-h}
prints an abbreviated, human-readable count, and
@samp{--block-size="'1"} prints a byte count with the thousands
separator of the current locale.

For each directory that is listed, preface the files with a line
@samp{total @var{blocks}}, where @var{blocks} is the total disk allocation
for all files in that directory.  The block size currently defaults to 1024
bytes, but this can be overridden (@pxref{Block size}).
The @var{blocks} computed counts each hard link separately;
this is arguably a deficiency.

The file type is one of the following characters:

@c The commented-out entries are ones we're not sure about.

@table @samp
@item -
regular file
@item b
block special file
@item c
character special file
@item C
high performance (``contiguous data'') file
@item d
directory
@item D
door (Solaris 2.5 and up)
@c @item F
@c semaphore, if this is a distinct file type
@item l
symbolic link
@c @item m
@c multiplexed file (7th edition Unix; obsolete)
@item M
off-line (``migrated'') file (Cray DMF)
@item n
network special file (HP-UX)
@item p
FIFO (named pipe)
@item P
port (Solaris 10 and up)
@c @item Q
@c message queue, if this is a distinct file type
@item s
socket
@c @item S
@c shared memory object, if this is a distinct file type
@c @item T
@c typed memory object, if this is a distinct file type
@c @item w
@c whiteout (4.4BSD; not implemented)
@item ?
some other file type
@end table

@cindex permissions, output by @command{ls}
The file mode bits listed are similar to symbolic mode specifications
(@pxref{Symbolic Modes}).  But @command{ls} combines multiple bits into the
third character of each set of permissions as follows:

@table @samp
@item s
If the set-user-ID or set-group-ID bit and the corresponding executable bit
are both set.

@item S
If the set-user-ID or set-group-ID bit is set but the corresponding
executable bit is not set.

@item t
If the restricted deletion flag or sticky bit, and the
other-executable bit, are both set.  The restricted deletion flag is
another name for the sticky bit.  @xref{Mode Structure}.

@item T
If the restricted deletion flag or sticky bit is set but the
other-executable bit is not set.

@item x
If the executable bit is set and none of the above apply.

@item -
Otherwise.
@end table

Following the file mode bits is a single character that specifies
whether an alternate access method such as an access control list
applies to the file.  When the character following the file mode bits is a
space, there is no alternate access method.  When it is a printing
character, then there is such a method.

For a file with an extended access control list, a @samp{+} character is
listed.  Basic access control lists are equivalent to the permissions
listed, and are not considered an alternate access method.

@item -n
@itemx --numeric-uid-gid
@opindex -n
@opindex --numeric-uid-gid
@cindex numeric uid and gid
@cindex numeric user and group IDs
Produce long format directory listings, but
display numeric user and group IDs instead of the owner and group names.

@item -o
@opindex -o
Produce long format directory listings, but don't display group information.
It is equivalent to using @option{--format=long} with @option{--no-group} .

@item -s
@itemx --size
@opindex -s
@opindex --size
@cindex disk allocation
@cindex size of files, reporting
Print the disk allocation of each file to the left of the file name.
This is the amount of disk space used by the file, which is usually a
bit more than the file's size, but it can be less if the file has holes.

Normally the disk allocation is printed in units of
1024 bytes, but this can be overridden (@pxref{Block size}).

@cindex NFS mounts from BSD to HP-UX
For files that are NFS-mounted from an HP-UX system to a BSD system,
this option reports sizes that are half the correct values.  On HP-UX
systems, it reports sizes that are twice the correct values for files
that are NFS-mounted from BSD systems.  This is due to a flaw in HP-UX;
it also affects the HP-UX @command{ls} program.

@optSi

@end table


@node Sorting the output
@subsection Sorting the output

@cindex sorting @command{ls} output
These options change the order in which @command{ls} sorts the information
it outputs.  By default, sorting is done by character code
(e.g., @acronym{ASCII} order).

@table @samp

@item -c
@itemx --time=ctime
@itemx --time=status
@opindex -c
@opindex --time
@opindex ctime@r{, printing or sorting by}
@opindex status time@r{, printing or sorting by}
@opindex use time@r{, printing or sorting files by}
If the long listing format (e.g., @option{-l}, @option{-o}) is being used,
print the status change time (the @samp{ctime} in the inode) instead of
the modification time.
When explicitly sorting by time (@option{--sort=time} or @option{-t})
or when not using a long listing format,
sort according to the status change time.

@item -f
@opindex -f
@cindex unsorted directory listing
@cindex directory order, listing by
Primarily, like @option{-U}---do not sort; list the files in whatever
order they are stored in the directory.  But also enable @option{-a} (list
all files) and disable @option{-l}, @option{--color}, and @option{-s} (if they
were specified before the @option{-f}).

@item -r
@itemx --reverse
@opindex -r
@opindex --reverse
@cindex reverse sorting
Reverse whatever the sorting method is---e.g., list files in reverse
alphabetical order, youngest first, smallest first, or whatever.

@item -S
@itemx --sort=size
@opindex -S
@opindex --sort
@opindex size of files@r{, sorting files by}
Sort by file size, largest first.

@item -t
@itemx --sort=time
@opindex -t
@opindex --sort
@opindex modification time@r{, sorting files by}
Sort by modification time (the @samp{mtime} in the inode), newest first.

@item -u
@itemx --time=atime
@itemx --time=access
@itemx --time=use
@opindex -u
@opindex --time
@opindex use time@r{, printing or sorting files by}
@opindex atime@r{, printing or sorting files by}
@opindex access time@r{, printing or sorting files by}
If the long listing format (e.g., @option{--format=long}) is being used,
print the last access time (the @samp{atime} in the inode).
When explicitly sorting by time (@option{--sort=time} or @option{-t})
or when not using a long listing format, sort according to the access time.

@item -U
@itemx --sort=none
@opindex -U
@opindex --sort
@opindex none@r{, sorting option for @command{ls}}
Do not sort; list the files in whatever order they are
stored in the directory.  (Do not do any of the other unrelated things
that @option{-f} does.)  This is especially useful when listing very large
directories, since not doing any sorting can be noticeably faster.

@item -v
@itemx --sort=version
@opindex -v
@opindex --sort
@opindex version@r{, sorting option for @command{ls}}
Sort by version name and number, lowest first.  It behaves like a default
sort, except that each sequence of decimal digits is treated numerically
as an index/version number.  (@xref{More details about version sort}.)

@item -X
@itemx --sort=extension
@opindex -X
@opindex --sort
@opindex extension@r{, sorting files by}
Sort directory contents alphabetically by file extension (characters
after the last @samp{.}); files with no extension are sorted first.

@end table


@node More details about version sort
@subsection More details about version sort

The version sort takes into account the fact that file names frequently include
indices or version numbers.  Standard sorting functions usually do not produce
the ordering that people expect because comparisons are made on a
character-by-character basis.  The version
sort addresses this problem, and is especially useful when browsing
directories that contain many files with indices/version numbers in their
names:

@example
$ ls -1            $ ls -1v
foo.zml-1.gz       foo.zml-1.gz
foo.zml-100.gz     foo.zml-2.gz
foo.zml-12.gz      foo.zml-6.gz
foo.zml-13.gz      foo.zml-12.gz
foo.zml-2.gz       foo.zml-13.gz
foo.zml-25.gz      foo.zml-25.gz
foo.zml-6.gz       foo.zml-100.gz
@end example

Note also that numeric parts with leading zeros are considered as
fractional one:

@example
$ ls -1            $ ls -1v
abc-1.007.tgz      abc-1.007.tgz
abc-1.012b.tgz     abc-1.01a.tgz
abc-1.01a.tgz      abc-1.012b.tgz
@end example

This functionality is implemented using the @code{strverscmp} function.
@xref{String/Array Comparison, , , libc, The GNU C Library Reference Manual}.
One result of that implementation decision is that @code{ls -v} does not
use the locale category, @env{LC_COLLATE}.  As a result, non-numeric prefixes
are sorted as if @env{LC_COLLATE} were set to @code{C}.

@node General output formatting
@subsection General output formatting

These options affect the appearance of the overall output.

@table @samp

@item -1
@itemx --format=single-column
@opindex -1
@opindex --format
@opindex single-column @r{output of files}
List one file per line.  This is the default for @command{ls} when standard
output is not a terminal.

@item -C
@itemx --format=vertical
@opindex -C
@opindex --format
@opindex vertical @r{sorted files in columns}
List files in columns, sorted vertically.  This is the default for
@command{ls} if standard output is a terminal.  It is always the default
for the @command{dir} program.
@sc{gnu} @command{ls} uses variable width columns to display as many files as
possible in the fewest lines.

@item --color [=@var{when}]
@opindex --color
@cindex color, distinguishing file types with
Specify whether to use color for distinguishing file types.  @var{when}
may be omitted, or one of:
@itemize @bullet
@item none
@vindex none @r{color option}
- Do not use color at all.  This is the default.
@item auto
@vindex auto @r{color option}
@cindex terminal, using color iff
- Only use color if standard output is a terminal.
@item always
@vindex always @r{color option}
- Always use color.
@end itemize
Specifying @option{--color} and no @var{when} is equivalent to
@option{--color=always}.
Piping a colorized listing through a pager like @command{more} or
@command{less} usually produces unreadable results.  However, using
@code{more -f} does seem to work.

@item -F
@itemx --classify
@itemx --indicator-style=classify
@opindex -F
@opindex --classify
@opindex --indicator-style
@cindex file type and executables, marking
@cindex executables and file type, marking
Append a character to each file name indicating the file type.  Also,
for regular files that are executable, append @samp{*}.  The file type
indicators are @samp{/} for directories, @samp{@@} for symbolic links,
@samp{|} for FIFOs, @samp{=} for sockets, @samp{>} for doors,
and nothing for regular files.
@c The following sentence is the same as the one for -d.
Do not follow symbolic links listed on the
command line unless the @option{--dereference-command-line} (@option{-H}),
@option{--dereference} (@option{-L}), or
@option{--dereference-command-line-symlink-to-dir} options are specified.

@item --file-type
@itemx --indicator-style=file-type
@opindex --file-type
@opindex --indicator-style
@cindex file type, marking
Append a character to each file name indicating the file type.  This is
like @option{-F}, except that executables are not marked.

@item --indicator-style=@var{word}
@opindex --indicator-style
Append a character indicator with style @var{word} to entry names,
as follows:

@table @samp
@item none
Do not append any character indicator; this is the default.
@item slash
Append @samp{/} for directories.  This is the same as the @option{-p}
option.
@item file-type
Append @samp{/} for directories, @samp{@@} for symbolic links, @samp{|}
for FIFOs, @samp{=} for sockets, and nothing for regular files.  This is
the same as the @option{--file-type} option.
@item classify
Append @samp{*} for executable regular files, otherwise behave as for
@samp{file-type}.  This is the same as the @option{-F} or
@option{--classify} option.
@end table

@item -k
@opindex -k
Print file sizes in 1024-byte blocks, overriding the default block
size (@pxref{Block size}).
This option is equivalent to @option{--block-size=1K}.

@item -m
@itemx --format=commas
@opindex -m
@opindex --format
@opindex commas@r{, outputting between files}
List files horizontally, with as many as will fit on each line,
separated by @samp{, } (a comma and a space).

@item -p
@itemx --indicator-style=slash
@opindex -p
@opindex --indicator-style
@cindex file type, marking
Append a @samp{/} to directory names.

@item -x
@itemx --format=across
@itemx --format=horizontal
@opindex -x
@opindex --format
@opindex across@r{, listing files}
@opindex horizontal@r{, listing files}
List the files in columns, sorted horizontally.

@item -T @var{cols}
@itemx --tabsize=@var{cols}
@opindex -T
@opindex --tabsize
Assume that each tab stop is @var{cols} columns wide.  The default is 8.
@command{ls} uses tabs where possible in the output, for efficiency.  If
@var{cols} is zero, do not use tabs at all.

@c FIXME: remove in 2009, if Apple Terminal has been fixed for long enough.
Some terminal emulators (at least Apple Terminal 1.5 (133) from Mac OS X 10.4.8)
do not properly align columns to the right of a TAB following a
non-@acronym{ASCII} byte.  If you use such a terminal emulator, use the
@option{-T0} option or put @code{TABSIZE=0} in your environment to tell
@command{ls} to align using spaces, not tabs.

@item -w
@itemx --width=@var{cols}
@opindex -w
@opindex --width
@vindex COLUMNS
Assume the screen is @var{cols} columns wide.  The default is taken
from the terminal settings if possible; otherwise the environment
variable @env{COLUMNS} is used if it is set; otherwise the default
is 80.

@end table


@node Formatting file timestamps
@subsection Formatting file timestamps

By default, file timestamps are listed in abbreviated form.  Most
locales use a timestamp like @samp{2002-03-30 23:45}.  However, the
default @acronym{POSIX} locale uses a date like @samp{Mar 30@ @ 2002}
for non-recent timestamps, and a date-without-year and time like
@samp{Mar 30 23:45} for recent timestamps.

A timestamp is considered to be @dfn{recent} if it is less than six
months old, and is not dated in the future.  If a timestamp dated
today is not listed in recent form, the timestamp is in the future,
which means you probably have clock skew problems which may break
programs like @command{make} that rely on file timestamps.

@vindex TZ
Time stamps are listed according to the time zone rules specified by
the @env{TZ} environment variable, or by the system default rules if
@env{TZ} is not set.  @xref{TZ Variable,, Specifying the Time Zone
with @env{TZ}, libc, The GNU C Library}.

The following option changes how file timestamps are printed.

@table @samp
@item --time-style=@var{style}
@opindex --time-style
@cindex time style
List timestamps in style @var{style}.  The @var{style} should
be one of the following:

@table @samp
@item +@var{format}
@vindex LC_TIME
List timestamps using @var{format}, where @var{format} is interpreted
like the format argument of @command{date} (@pxref{date invocation}).
For example, @option{--time-style="+%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S"} causes
@command{ls} to list timestamps like @samp{2002-03-30 23:45:56}.  As
with @command{date}, @var{format}'s interpretation is affected by the
@env{LC_TIME} locale category.

If @var{format} contains two format strings separated by a newline,
the former is used for non-recent files and the latter for recent
files; if you want output columns to line up, you may need to insert
spaces in one of the two formats.

@item full-iso
List timestamps in full using @acronym{ISO} 8601 date, time, and time zone
format with nanosecond precision, e.g., @samp{2002-03-30
23:45:56.477817180 -0700}.  This style is equivalent to
@samp{+%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S.%N %z}.

This is useful because the time output includes all the information that
is available from the operating system.  For example, this can help
explain @command{make}'s behavior, since @acronym{GNU} @command{make}
uses the full timestamp to determine whether a file is out of date.

@item long-iso
List @acronym{ISO} 8601 date and time in minutes, e.g.,
@samp{2002-03-30 23:45}.  These timestamps are shorter than
@samp{full-iso} timestamps, and are usually good enough for everyday
work.  This style is equivalent to @samp{+%Y-%m-%d %H:%M}.

@item iso
List @acronym{ISO} 8601 dates for non-recent timestamps (e.g.,
@samp{2002-03-30@ }), and @acronym{ISO} 8601 month, day, hour, and
minute for recent timestamps (e.g., @samp{03-30 23:45}).  These
timestamps are uglier than @samp{long-iso} timestamps, but they carry
nearly the same information in a smaller space and their brevity helps
@command{ls} output fit within traditional 80-column output lines.
The following two @command{ls} invocations are equivalent:

@example
newline='
'
ls -l --time-style="+%Y-%m-%d $newline%m-%d %H:%M"
ls -l --time-style="iso"
@end example

@item locale
@vindex LC_TIME
List timestamps in a locale-dependent form.  For example, a Finnish
locale might list non-recent timestamps like @samp{maalis 30@ @ 2002}
and recent timestamps like @samp{maalis 30 23:45}.  Locale-dependent
timestamps typically consume more space than @samp{iso} timestamps and
are harder for programs to parse because locale conventions vary so
widely, but they are easier for many people to read.

The @env{LC_TIME} locale category specifies the timestamp format.  The
default @acronym{POSIX} locale uses timestamps like @samp{Mar 30@
@ 2002} and @samp{Mar 30 23:45}; in this locale, the following two
@command{ls} invocations are equivalent:

@example
newline='
'
ls -l --time-style="+%b %e  %Y$newline%b %e %H:%M"
ls -l --time-style="locale"
@end example

Other locales behave differently.  For example, in a German locale,
@option{--time-style="locale"} might be equivalent to
@option{--time-style="+%e. %b %Y $newline%e. %b %H:%M"}
and might generate timestamps like @samp{30. M@"ar 2002@ } and
@samp{30. M@"ar 23:45}.

@item posix-@var{style}
@vindex LC_TIME
List @acronym{POSIX}-locale timestamps if the @env{LC_TIME} locale
category is @acronym{POSIX}, @var{style} timestamps otherwise.  For
example, the @samp{posix-long-iso} style lists
timestamps like @samp{Mar 30@ @ 2002} and @samp{Mar 30 23:45} when in
the @acronym{POSIX} locale, and like @samp{2002-03-30 23:45} otherwise.
@end table
@end table

@vindex TIME_STYLE
You can specify the default value of the @option{--time-style} option
with the environment variable @env{TIME_STYLE}; if @env{TIME_STYLE} is not set
the default style is @samp{locale}.  @acronym{GNU} Emacs 21.3 and
later use the @option{--dired} option and therefore can parse any date
format, but if you are using Emacs 21.1 or 21.2 and specify a
non-@acronym{POSIX} locale you may need to set
@samp{TIME_STYLE="posix-long-iso"}.

To avoid certain denial-of-service attacks, timestamps that would be
longer than 1000 bytes may be treated as errors.


@node Formatting the file names
@subsection Formatting the file names

These options change how file names themselves are printed.

@table @samp

@item -b
@itemx --escape
@itemx --quoting-style=escape
@opindex -b
@opindex --escape
@opindex --quoting-style
@cindex backslash sequences for file names
Quote nongraphic characters in file names using alphabetic and octal
backslash sequences like those used in C.

@item -N
@itemx --literal
@itemx --quoting-style=literal
@opindex -N
@opindex --literal
@opindex --quoting-style
Do not quote file names.  However, with @command{ls} nongraphic
characters are still printed as question marks if the output is a
terminal and you do not specify the @option{--show-control-chars}
option.

@item -q
@itemx --hide-control-chars
@opindex -q
@opindex --hide-control-chars
Print question marks instead of nongraphic characters in file names.
This is the default if the output is a terminal and the program is
@command{ls}.

@item -Q
@itemx --quote-name
@itemx --quoting-style=c
@opindex -Q
@opindex --quote-name
@opindex --quoting-style
Enclose file names in double quotes and quote nongraphic characters as
in C.

@item --quoting-style=@var{word}
@opindex --quoting-style
@cindex quoting style
Use style @var{word} to quote file names and other strings that may
contain arbitrary characters.  The @var{word} should
be one of the following:

@table @samp
@item literal
Output strings as-is; this is the same as the @option{-N} or
@option{--literal} option.
@item shell
Quote strings for the shell if they contain shell metacharacters or would
cause ambiguous output.
The quoting is suitable for @acronym{POSIX}-compatible shells like
@command{bash}, but it does not always work for incompatible shells
like @command{csh}.
@item shell-always
Quote strings for the shell, even if they would normally not require quoting.
@item c
Quote strings as for C character string literals, including the
surrounding double-quote characters; this is the same as the
@option{-Q} or @option{--quote-name} option.
@item escape
Quote strings as for C character string literals, except omit the
surrounding double-quote
characters; this is the same as the @option{-b} or @option{--escape} option.
@item clocale
Quote strings as for C character string literals, except use
surrounding quotation marks appropriate for the
locale.
@item locale
@c Use @t instead of @samp to avoid duplicate quoting in some output styles.
Quote strings as for C character string literals, except use
surrounding quotation marks appropriate for the locale, and quote
@t{`like this'} instead of @t{"like
this"} in the default C locale.  This looks nicer on many displays.
@end table

You can specify the default value of the @option{--quoting-style} option
with the environment variable @env{QUOTING_STYLE}.  If that environment
variable is not set, the default value is @samp{literal}, but this
default may change to @samp{shell} in a future version of this package.

@item --show-control-chars
@opindex --show-control-chars
Print nongraphic characters as-is in file names.
This is the default unless the output is a terminal and the program is
@command{ls}.

@end table


@node dir invocation
@section @command{dir}: Briefly list directory contents

@pindex dir
@cindex directory listing, brief

@command{dir} is equivalent to @code{ls -C
-b}; that is, by default files are listed in columns, sorted vertically,
and special characters are represented by backslash escape sequences.

@xref{ls invocation, @command{ls}}.


@node vdir invocation
@section @command{vdir}: Verbosely list directory contents

@pindex vdir
@cindex directory listing, verbose

@command{vdir} is equivalent to @code{ls -l
-b}; that is, by default files are listed in long format and special
characters are represented by backslash escape sequences.

@node dircolors invocation
@section @command{dircolors}: Color setup for @command{ls}

@pindex dircolors
@cindex color setup
@cindex setup for color

@command{dircolors} outputs a sequence of shell commands to set up the
terminal for color output from @command{ls} (and @command{dir}, etc.).
Typical usage:

@example
eval "`dircolors [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]`"
@end example

If @var{file} is specified, @command{dircolors} reads it to determine which
colors to use for which file types and extensions.  Otherwise, a
precompiled database is used.  For details on the format of these files,
run @samp{dircolors --print-database}.

@vindex LS_COLORS
@vindex SHELL @r{environment variable, and color}
The output is a shell command to set the @env{LS_COLORS} environment
variable.  You can specify the shell syntax to use on the command line,
or @command{dircolors} will guess it from the value of the @env{SHELL}
environment variable.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp
@item -b
@itemx --sh
@itemx --bourne-shell
@opindex -b
@opindex --sh
@opindex --bourne-shell
@cindex Bourne shell syntax for color setup
@cindex @command{sh} syntax for color setup
Output Bourne shell commands.  This is the default if the @env{SHELL}
environment variable is set and does not end with @samp{csh} or
@samp{tcsh}.

@item -c
@itemx --csh
@itemx --c-shell
@opindex -c
@opindex --csh
@opindex --c-shell
@cindex C shell syntax for color setup
@cindex @command{csh} syntax for color setup
Output C shell commands.  This is the default if @code{SHELL} ends with
@command{csh} or @command{tcsh}.

@item -p
@itemx --print-database
@opindex -p
@opindex --print-database
@cindex color database, printing
@cindex database for color setup, printing
@cindex printing color database
Print the (compiled-in) default color configuration database.  This
output is itself a valid configuration file, and is fairly descriptive
of the possibilities.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node Basic operations
@chapter Basic operations

@cindex manipulating files

This chapter describes the commands for basic file manipulation:
copying, moving (renaming), and deleting (removing).

@menu
* cp invocation::               Copy files.
* dd invocation::               Convert and copy a file.
* install invocation::          Copy files and set attributes.
* mv invocation::               Move (rename) files.
* rm invocation::               Remove files or directories.
* shred invocation::            Remove files more securely.
@end menu


@node cp invocation
@section @command{cp}: Copy files and directories

@pindex cp
@cindex copying files and directories
@cindex files, copying
@cindex directories, copying

@command{cp} copies files (or, optionally, directories).  The copy is
completely independent of the original.  You can either copy one file to
another, or copy arbitrarily many files to a destination directory.
Synopses:

@example
cp [@var{option}]@dots{} [-T] @var{source} @var{dest}
cp [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{source}@dots{} @var{directory}
cp [@var{option}]@dots{} -t @var{directory} @var{source}@dots{}
@end example

@itemize @bullet
@item
If two file names are given, @command{cp} copies the first file to the
second.

@item
If the @option{--target-directory} (@option{-t}) option is given, or
failing that if the last file is a directory and the
@option{--no-target-directory} (@option{-T}) option is not given,
@command{cp} copies each @var{source} file to the specified directory,
using the @var{source}s' names.
@end itemize

Generally, files are written just as they are read.  For exceptions,
see the @option{--sparse} option below.

By default, @command{cp} does not copy directories.  However, the
@option{-R}, @option{-a}, and @option{-r} options cause @command{cp} to
copy recursively by descending into source directories and copying files
to corresponding destination directories.

By default, @command{cp} follows symbolic links only when not copying
recursively.  This default can be overridden with the
@option{--archive} (@option{-a}), @option{-d}, @option{--dereference}
(@option{-L}), @option{--no-dereference} (@option{-P}), and
@option{-H} options.  If more than one of these options is specified,
the last one silently overrides the others.

By default, @command{cp} copies the contents of special files only
when not copying recursively.  This default can be overridden with the
@option{--copy-contents} option.

@cindex self-backups
@cindex backups, making only
@command{cp} generally refuses to copy a file onto itself, with the
following exception: if @option{--force --backup} is specified with
@var{source} and @var{dest} identical, and referring to a regular file,
@command{cp} will make a backup file, either regular or numbered, as
specified in the usual ways (@pxref{Backup options}).  This is useful when
you simply want to make a backup of an existing file before changing it.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp
@item -a
@itemx --archive
@opindex -a
@opindex --archive
Preserve as much as possible of the structure and attributes of the
original files in the copy (but do not attempt to preserve internal
directory structure; i.e., @samp{ls -U} may list the entries in a copied
directory in a different order).
Equivalent to @option{-dpPR}.

@item -b
@itemx @w{@kbd{--backup}[=@var{method}]}
@opindex -b
@opindex --backup
@vindex VERSION_CONTROL
@cindex backups, making
@xref{Backup options}.
Make a backup of each file that would otherwise be overwritten or removed.
As a special case, @command{cp} makes a backup of @var{source} when the force
and backup options are given and @var{source} and @var{dest} are the same
name for an existing, regular file.  One useful application of this
combination of options is this tiny Bourne shell script:

@example
#!/bin/sh
# Usage: backup FILE...
# Create a @sc{gnu}-style backup of each listed FILE.
for i; do
  cp --backup --force -- "$i" "$i"
done
@end example

@item --copy-contents
@cindex directories, copying recursively
@cindex copying directories recursively
@cindex recursively copying directories
@cindex non-directories, copying as special files
If copying recursively, copy the contents of any special files (e.g.,
FIFOs and device files) as if they were regular files.  This means
trying to read the data in each source file and writing it to the
destination.  It is usually a mistake to use this option, as it
normally has undesirable effects on special files like FIFOs and the
ones typically found in the @file{/dev} directory.  In most cases,
@code{cp -R --copy-contents} will hang indefinitely trying to read
from FIFOs and special files like @file{/dev/console}, and it will
fill up your destination disk if you use it to copy @file{/dev/zero}.
This option has no effect unless copying recursively, and it does not
affect the copying of symbolic links.

@item -d
@opindex -d
@cindex symbolic links, copying
@cindex hard links, preserving
Copy symbolic links as symbolic links rather than copying the files that
they point to, and preserve hard links between source files in the copies.
Equivalent to @option{--no-dereference --preserve=links}.

@item -f
@itemx --force
@opindex -f
@opindex --force
When copying without this option and an existing destination file cannot
be opened for writing, the copy fails.  However, with @option{--force}),
when a destination file cannot be opened, @command{cp} then unlinks it and
tries to open it again.  Contrast this behavior with that enabled by
@option{--link} and @option{--symbolic-link}, whereby the destination file
is never opened but rather is unlinked unconditionally.  Also see the
description of @option{--remove-destination}.

This option is independent of the @option{--interactive} or
@option{-i} option: neither cancels the effect of the other.

@item -H
@opindex -H
If a command line argument specifies a symbolic link, then copy the
file it points to rather than the symbolic link itself.  However,
copy (preserving its nature) any symbolic link that is encountered
via recursive traversal.

@item -i
@itemx --interactive
@opindex -i
@opindex --interactive
When copying a file other than a directory, prompt whether to
overwrite an existing destination file.

@item -l
@itemx --link
@opindex -l
@opindex --link
Make hard links instead of copies of non-directories.

@item -L
@itemx --dereference
@opindex -L
@opindex --dereference
Always follow symbolic links.

@item -P
@itemx --no-dereference
@opindex -P
@opindex --no-dereference
@cindex symbolic links, copying
Copy symbolic links as symbolic links rather than copying the files that
they point to.

@item -p
@itemx @w{@kbd{--preserve}[=@var{attribute_list}]}
@opindex -p
@opindex --preserve
@cindex file information, preserving
Preserve the specified attributes of the original files.
If specified, the @var{attribute_list} must be a comma-separated list
of one or more of the following strings:

@table @samp
@itemx mode
Preserve the file mode bits and access control lists.
@itemx ownership
Preserve the owner and group.  On most modern systems,
only users with appropriate privileges may change the owner of a file,
and ordinary users
may preserve the group ownership of a file only if they happen to be
a member of the desired group.
@itemx timestamps
Preserve the times of last access and last modification, when possible.
In general, it is not possible to preserve these attributes
when the affected file is a symbolic link.
However, FreeBSD now provides the @code{lutimes} function, which makes
it possibile even for symbolic links.  However, this implementation does
not yet take advantage of that.
@c FIXME: once we provide lutimes support, update the above.
@itemx links
Preserve in the destination files
any links between corresponding source files.
@c Give examples illustrating how hard links are preserved.
@c Also, show how soft links map to hard links with -L and -H.
@itemx all
Preserve all file attributes.
Equivalent to specifying all of the above.
@end table

Using @option{--preserve} with no @var{attribute_list} is equivalent
to @option{--preserve=mode,ownership,timestamps}.

In the absence of this option, each destination file is created with the
mode bits of the corresponding source file, minus the bits set in the
umask and minus the set-user-ID and set-group-ID bits.
@xref{File permissions}.

@itemx @w{@kbd{--no-preserve}=@var{attribute_list}}
@cindex file information, preserving
Do not preserve the specified attributes.  The @var{attribute_list}
has the same form as for @option{--preserve}.

@itemx --parents
@opindex --parents
@cindex parent directories and @command{cp}
Form the name of each destination file by appending to the target
directory a slash and the specified name of the source file.  The last
argument given to @command{cp} must be the name of an existing directory.
For example, the command:

@example
cp --parents a/b/c existing_dir
@end example

@noindent
copies the file @file{a/b/c} to @file{existing_dir/a/b/c}, creating
any missing intermediate directories.

@itemx @w{@kbd{--reply}=@var{how}}
@opindex --reply
@cindex interactivity
@c FIXME: remove in 2008
@strong{Deprecated: to be removed in 2008.}@*
Using @option{--reply=yes} makes @command{cp} act as if @samp{yes} were
given as a response to every prompt about a destination file.  That effectively
cancels any preceding @option{--interactive} or @option{-i} option.
Specify @option{--reply=no} to make @command{cp} act as if @samp{no} were
given as a response to every prompt about a destination file.
Specify @option{--reply=query} to make @command{cp} prompt the user
about each existing destination file.

@item -R
@itemx -r
@itemx --recursive
@opindex -R
@opindex -r
@opindex --recursive
@cindex directories, copying recursively
@cindex copying directories recursively
@cindex recursively copying directories
@cindex non-directories, copying as special files
Copy directories recursively.  Symbolic links are not followed by
default; see the @option{--archive} (@option{-a}), @option{-d},
@option{--dereference} (@option{-L}), @option{--no-dereference}
(@option{-P}), and @option{-H} options.  Special files are copied by
creating a destination file of the same type as the source; see the
@option{--copy-contents} option.  It is not portable to use
@option{-r} to copy symbolic links or special files.  On some
non-@sc{gnu} systems, @option{-r} implies the equivalent of
@option{-L} and @option{--copy-contents} for historical reasons.
Also, it is not portable to use @option{-R} to copy symbolic links
unless you also specify @option{-P}, as @acronym{POSIX} allows
implementations that dereference symbolic links by default.

@item --remove-destination
@opindex --remove-destination
Remove each existing destination file before attempting to open it
(contrast with @option{-f} above).

@item --sparse=@var{when}
@opindex --sparse=@var{when}
@cindex sparse files, copying
@cindex holes, copying files with
@findex read @r{system call, and holes}
A @dfn{sparse file} contains @dfn{holes}---a sequence of zero bytes that
does not occupy any physical disk blocks; the @samp{read} system call
reads these as zeros.  This can both save considerable disk space and
increase speed, since many binary files contain lots of consecutive zero
bytes.  By default, @command{cp} detects holes in input source files via a crude
heuristic and makes the corresponding output file sparse as well.
Only regular files may be sparse.

The @var{when} value can be one of the following:

@table @samp
@item auto
The default behavior: if the input file is sparse, attempt to make
the output file sparse, too.  However, if an output file exists but
refers to a non-regular file, then do not attempt to make it sparse.

@item always
For each sufficiently long sequence of zero bytes in the input file,
attempt to create a corresponding hole in the output file, even if the
input file does not appear to be sparse.
This is useful when the input file resides on a file system
that does not support sparse files
(for example,  @samp{efs} file systems in SGI IRIX 5.3 and earlier),
but the output file is on a type of file system that does support them.
Holes may be created only in regular files, so if the destination file
is of some other type, @command{cp} does not even try to make it sparse.

@item never
Never make the output file sparse.
This is useful in creating a file for use with the @command{mkswap} command,
since such a file must not have any holes.
@end table

@optStripTrailingSlashes

@item -s
@itemx --symbolic-link
@opindex -s
@opindex --symbolic-link
@cindex symbolic links, copying with
Make symbolic links instead of copies of non-directories.  All source
file names must be absolute (starting with @samp{/}) unless the
destination files are in the current directory.  This option merely
results in an error message on systems that do not support symbolic links.

@optBackupSuffix

@optTargetDirectory

@optNoTargetDirectory

@item -u
@itemx --update
@opindex -u
@opindex --update
@cindex newer files, copying only
Do not copy a non-directory that has an existing destination with the
same or newer modification time.  If time stamps are being preserved,
the comparison is to the source time stamp truncated to the
resolutions of the destination file system and of the system calls
used to update time stamps; this avoids duplicate work if several
@samp{cp -pu} commands are executed with the same source and
destination.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Print the name of each file before copying it.

@item -x
@itemx --one-file-system
@opindex -x
@opindex --one-file-system
@cindex file systems, omitting copying to different
Skip subdirectories that are on different file systems from the one that
the copy started on.
However, mount point directories @emph{are} copied.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node dd invocation
@section @command{dd}: Convert and copy a file

@pindex dd
@cindex converting while copying a file

@command{dd} copies a file (from standard input to standard output, by
default) with a changeable I/O block size, while optionally performing
conversions on it.  Synopses:

@example
dd [@var{operand}]@dots{}
dd @var{option}
@end example

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.
@xref{Common options}.  @command{dd} accepts the following operands.

@table @samp

@item if=@var{file}
@opindex if
Read from @var{file} instead of standard input.

@item of=@var{file}
@opindex of
Write to @var{file} instead of standard output.  Unless
@samp{conv=notrunc} is given, @command{dd} truncates @var{file} to zero
bytes (or the size specified with @samp{seek=}).

@item ibs=@var{bytes}
@opindex ibs
@cindex block size of input
@cindex input block size
Set the input block size to @var{bytes}.
This makes @command{dd} read @var{bytes} per block.

@item obs=@var{bytes}
@opindex obs
@cindex block size of output
@cindex output block size
Set the output block size to @var{bytes}.
This makes @command{dd} write @var{bytes} per block.

@item bs=@var{bytes}
@opindex bs
@cindex block size
Set both input and output block sizes to @var{bytes}.
This makes @command{dd} read and write @var{bytes} per block,
overriding any @samp{ibs} and @samp{obs} settings.

@item cbs=@var{bytes}
@opindex cbs
@cindex block size of conversion
@cindex conversion block size
@cindex fixed-length records, converting to variable-length
@cindex variable-length records, converting to fixed-length
Set the conversion block size to @var{bytes}.
When converting variable-length records to fixed-length ones
(@option{conv=block}) or the reverse (@option{conv=unblock}),
use @var{bytes} as the fixed record length.

@item skip=@var{blocks}
@opindex skip
Skip @var{blocks} @samp{ibs}-byte blocks in the input file before copying.

@item seek=@var{blocks}
@opindex seek
Skip @var{blocks} @samp{obs}-byte blocks in the output file before copying.

@item count=@var{blocks}
@opindex count
Copy @var{blocks} @samp{ibs}-byte blocks from the input file, instead
of everything until the end of the file.

@item conv=@var{conversion}[,@var{conversion}]@dots{}
@opindex conv
Convert the file as specified by the @var{conversion} argument(s).
(No spaces around any comma(s).)

Conversions:

@table @samp

@item ascii
@opindex ascii@r{, converting to}
Convert @acronym{EBCDIC} to @acronym{ASCII},
using the conversion table specified by @acronym{POSIX}.
This provides a 1:1 translation for all 256 bytes.

@item ebcdic
@opindex ebcdic@r{, converting to}
Convert @acronym{ASCII} to @acronym{EBCDIC}.
This is the inverse of the @samp{ascii} conversion.

@item ibm
@opindex alternate ebcdic@r{, converting to}
Convert @acronym{ASCII} to alternate @acronym{EBCDIC},
using the alternate conversion table specified by @acronym{POSIX}.
This is not a 1:1 translation, but reflects common historical practice
for @samp{~}, @samp{[}, and @samp{]}.

The @samp{ascii}, @samp{ebcdic}, and @samp{ibm} conversions are
mutually exclusive.

@item block
@opindex block @r{(space-padding)}
For each line in the input, output @samp{cbs} bytes, replacing the
input newline with a space and padding with spaces as necessary.

@item unblock
@opindex unblock
Replace trailing spaces in each @samp{cbs}-sized input block with a
newline.

The @samp{block} and @samp{unblock} conversions are mutually exclusive.

@item lcase
@opindex lcase@r{, converting to}
Change uppercase letters to lowercase.

@item ucase
@opindex ucase@r{, converting to}
Change lowercase letters to uppercase.

The @samp{lcase} and @samp{ucase} conversions are mutually exclusive.

@item swab
@opindex swab @r{(byte-swapping)}
@cindex byte-swapping
Swap every pair of input bytes.  @sc{gnu} @command{dd}, unlike others, works
when an odd number of bytes are read---the last byte is simply copied
(since there is nothing to swap it with).

@item noerror
@opindex noerror
@cindex read errors, ignoring
Continue after read errors.

@item nocreat
@opindex nocreat
@cindex creating output file, avoiding
Do not create the output file; the output file must already exist.

@item excl
@opindex excl
@cindex creating output file, requiring
Fail if the output file already exists; @command{dd} must create the
output file itself.

The @samp{excl} and @samp{nocreat} conversions are mutually exclusive.

@item notrunc
@opindex notrunc
@cindex truncating output file, avoiding
Do not truncate the output file.

@item sync
@opindex sync @r{(padding with nulls)}
Pad every input block to size of @samp{ibs} with trailing zero bytes.
When used with @samp{block} or @samp{unblock}, pad with spaces instead of
zero bytes.

@item fdatasync
@opindex fdatasync
@cindex synchronized data writes, before finishing
Synchronize output data just before finishing.  This forces a physical
write of output data.

@item fsync
@opindex fsync
@cindex synchronized data and metadata writes, before finishing
Synchronize output data and metadata just before finishing.  This
forces a physical write of output data and metadata.

@end table

@item iflag=@var{flag}[,@var{flag}]@dots{}
@opindex iflag
Access the input file using the flags specified by the @var{flag}
argument(s).  (No spaces around any comma(s).)

@item oflag=@var{flag}[,@var{flag}]@dots{}
@opindex oflag
Access the output file using the flags specified by the @var{flag}
argument(s).  (No spaces around any comma(s).)

Here are the flags.  Not every flag is supported on every operating
system.

@table @samp

@item append
@opindex append
@cindex appending to the output file
Write in append mode, so that even if some other process is writing to
this file, every @command{dd} write will append to the current
contents of the file.  This flag makes sense only for output.
If you combine this flag with the @samp{of=@var{file}} operand,
you should also specify @samp{conv=notrunc} unless you want the
output file to be truncated before being appended to.

@item direct
@opindex direct
@cindex direct I/O
Use direct I/O for data, avoiding the buffer cache.

@item directory
@opindex directory
@cindex directory I/O

Fail unless the file is a directory.  Most operating systems do not
allow I/O to a directory, so this flag has limited utility.

@item dsync
@opindex dsync
@cindex synchronized data reads
Use synchronized I/O for data.  For the output file, this forces a
physical write of output data on each write.  For the input file,
this flag can matter when reading from a remote file that has been
written to synchronously by some other process.  Metadata (e.g.,
last-access and last-modified time) is not necessarily synchronized.

@item sync
@opindex sync
@cindex synchronized data and metadata I/O
Use synchronized I/O for both data and metadata.

@item nonblock
@opindex nonblock
@cindex nonblocking I/O
Use non-blocking I/O.

@item noatime
@opindex noatime
@cindex access time
Do not update the file's access time.
Some older file systems silently ignore this flag, so it is a good
idea to test it on your files before relying on it.

@item noctty
@opindex noctty
@cindex controlling terminal
Do not assign the file to be a controlling terminal for @command{dd}.
This has no effect when the file is not a terminal.
On many hosts (e.g., @acronym{GNU}/Linux hosts), this option has no effect
at all.

@item nofollow
@opindex nofollow
@cindex symbolic links, following
Do not follow symbolic links.

@item nolinks
@opindex nolinks
@cindex hard links
Fail if the file has multiple hard links.

@item binary
@opindex binary
@cindex binary I/O
Use binary I/O.  This option has an effect only on nonstandard
platforms that distinguish binary from text I/O.

@item text
@opindex text
@cindex text I/O
Use text I/O.  Like @samp{binary}, this option has no effect on
standard platforms.

@end table

These flags are not supported on all systems, and @samp{dd} rejects
attempts to use them when they are not supported.  When reading from
standard input or writing to standard output, the @samp{nofollow} and
@samp{noctty} flags should not be specified, and the other flags
(e.g., @samp{nonblock}) can affect how other processes behave with the
affected file descriptors, even after @command{dd} exits.

@end table

@cindex multipliers after numbers
The numeric-valued strings above (@var{bytes} and @var{blocks}) can be
followed by a multiplier: @samp{b}=512, @samp{c}=1,
@samp{w}=2, @samp{x@var{m}}=@var{m}, or any of the
standard block size suffixes like @samp{k}=1024 (@pxref{Block size}).

Use different @command{dd} invocations to use different block sizes for
skipping and I/O@.  For example, the following shell commands copy data
in 512 KiB blocks between a disk and a tape, but do not save or restore a
4 KiB label at the start of the disk:

@example
disk=/dev/rdsk/c0t1d0s2
tape=/dev/rmt/0

# Copy all but the label from disk to tape.
(dd bs=4k skip=1 count=0 && dd bs=512k) <$disk >$tape

# Copy from tape back to disk, but leave the disk label alone.
(dd bs=4k seek=1 count=0 && dd bs=512k) <$tape >$disk
@end example

Sending an @samp{INFO} signal to a running @command{dd}
process makes it print I/O statistics to standard error
and then resume copying.  In the example below,
@command{dd} is run in the background to copy 10 million blocks.
The @command{kill} command makes it output intermediate I/O statistics,
and when @command{dd} completes, it outputs the final statistics.

@example
$ dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/null count=10MB & pid=$!
$ kill -s INFO $pid; wait $pid
3385223+0 records in
3385223+0 records out
1733234176 bytes (1.7 GB) copied, 6.42173 seconds, 270 MB/s
10000000+0 records in
10000000+0 records out
5120000000 bytes (5.1 GB) copied, 18.913 seconds, 271 MB/s
@end example

@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
On systems lacking the @samp{INFO} signal @command{dd} responds to the
@samp{USR1} signal instead, unless the @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT}
environment variable is set.

@exitstatus


@node install invocation
@section @command{install}: Copy files and set attributes

@pindex install
@cindex copying files and setting attributes

@command{install} copies files while setting their file mode bits and, if
possible, their owner and group.  Synopses:

@example
install [@var{option}]@dots{} [-T] @var{source} @var{dest}
install [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{source}@dots{} @var{directory}
install [@var{option}]@dots{} -t @var{directory} @var{source}@dots{}
install [@var{option}]@dots{} -d @var{directory}@dots{}
@end example

@itemize @bullet
@item
If two file names are given, @command{install} copies the first file to the
second.

@item
If the @option{--target-directory} (@option{-t}) option is given, or
failing that if the last file is a directory and the
@option{--no-target-directory} (@option{-T}) option is not given,
@command{install} copies each @var{source} file to the specified
directory, using the @var{source}s' names.

@item
If the @option{--directory} (@option{-d}) option is given,
@command{install} creates each @var{directory} and any missing parent
directories.  Parent directories are created with mode
@samp{u=rwx,go=rx} (755), regardless of the @option{-m} option or the
current umask.  @xref{Directory Setuid and Setgid}, for how the
set-user-ID and set-group-ID bits of parent directories are inherited.
@end itemize

@cindex Makefiles, installing programs in
@command{install} is similar to @command{cp}, but allows you to control the
attributes of destination files.  It is typically used in Makefiles to
copy programs into their destination directories.  It refuses to copy
files onto themselves.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@optBackup

@item -c
@opindex -c
Ignored; for compatibility with old Unix versions of @command{install}.

@item -d
@itemx --directory
@opindex -d
@opindex --directory
@cindex directories, creating with given attributes
@cindex parent directories, creating missing
@cindex leading directories, creating missing
Create any missing parent directories, giving them the default
attributes.  Then create each given directory, setting their owner,
group and mode as given on the command line or to the defaults.

@item -g @var{group}
@itemx --group=@var{group}
@opindex -g
@opindex --group
@cindex group ownership of installed files, setting
Set the group ownership of installed files or directories to
@var{group}.  The default is the process's current group.  @var{group}
may be either a group name or a numeric group ID.

@item -m @var{mode}
@itemx --mode=@var{mode}
@opindex -m
@opindex --mode
@cindex permissions of installed files, setting
Set the file mode bits for the installed file or directory to @var{mode},
which can be either an octal number, or a symbolic mode as in
@command{chmod}, with @samp{a=} (no access allowed to anyone) as the
point of departure (@pxref{File permissions}).
The default mode is @samp{u=rwx,go=rx,a-s}---read, write, and
execute for the owner, read and execute for group and other, and with
set-user-ID and set-group-ID disabled.
This default is not quite the same as @samp{755}, since it disables
instead of preserving set-user-ID and set-group-ID on directories.
@xref{Directory Setuid and Setgid}.

@item -o @var{owner}
@itemx --owner=@var{owner}
@opindex -o
@opindex --owner
@cindex ownership of installed files, setting
@cindex appropriate privileges
@vindex root @r{as default owner}
If @command{install} has appropriate privileges (is run as root), set the
ownership of installed files or directories to @var{owner}.  The default
is @code{root}.  @var{owner} may be either a user name or a numeric user
ID.

@item -p
@itemx --preserve-timestamps
@opindex -p
@opindex --preserve-timestamps
@cindex timestamps of installed files, preserving
Set the time of last access and the time of last modification of each
installed file to match those of each corresponding original file.
When a file is installed without this option, its last access and
last modification times are both set to the time of installation.
This option is useful if you want to use the last modification times
of installed files to keep track of when they were last built as opposed
to when they were last installed.

@item -s
@itemx --strip
@opindex -s
@opindex --strip
@cindex symbol table information, stripping
@cindex stripping symbol table information
Strip the symbol tables from installed binary executables.

@optBackupSuffix

@optTargetDirectory

@optNoTargetDirectory

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Print the name of each file before copying it.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node mv invocation
@section @command{mv}: Move (rename) files

@pindex mv

@command{mv} moves or renames files (or directories).  Synopses:

@example
mv [@var{option}]@dots{} [-T] @var{source} @var{dest}
mv [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{source}@dots{} @var{directory}
mv [@var{option}]@dots{} -t @var{directory} @var{source}@dots{}
@end example

@itemize @bullet
@item
If two file names are given, @command{mv} moves the first file to the
second.

@item
If the @option{--target-directory} (@option{-t}) option is given, or
failing that if the last file is a directory and the
@option{--no-target-directory} (@option{-T}) option is not given,
@command{mv} moves each @var{source} file to the specified
directory, using the @var{source}s' names.
@end itemize

@command{mv} can move any type of file from one file system to another.
Prior to version @code{4.0} of the fileutils,
@command{mv} could move only regular files between file systems.
For example, now @command{mv} can move an entire directory hierarchy
including special device files from one partition to another.  It first
uses some of the same code that's used by @code{cp -a} to copy the
requested directories and files, then (assuming the copy succeeded)
it removes the originals.  If the copy fails, then the part that was
copied to the destination partition is removed.  If you were to copy
three directories from one partition to another and the copy of the first
directory succeeded, but the second didn't, the first would be left on
the destination partition and the second and third would be left on the
original partition.

@cindex prompting, and @command{mv}
If a destination file exists but is normally unwritable, standard input
is a terminal, and the @option{-f} or @option{--force} option is not given,
@command{mv} prompts the user for whether to replace the file.  (You might
own the file, or have write permission on its directory.)  If the
response is not affirmative, the file is skipped.

@emph{Warning}: If you try to move a symlink that points to a directory,
and you specify the symlink with a trailing slash, then @command{mv}
doesn't move the symlink but instead moves the directory referenced
by the symlink.  @xref{Trailing slashes}.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@optBackup

@item -f
@itemx --force
@opindex -f
@opindex --force
@cindex prompts, omitting
Do not prompt the user before removing a destination file.

@item -i
@itemx --interactive
@opindex -i
@opindex --interactive
@cindex prompts, forcing
Prompt whether to overwrite each existing destination file, regardless
of its permissions.
If the response is not affirmative, the file is skipped.

@itemx @w{@kbd{--reply}=@var{how}}
@opindex --reply
@cindex interactivity
@c FIXME: remove in 2008
@strong{Deprecated: to be removed in 2008.}@*
Specifying @option{--reply=yes} is equivalent to using @option{--force}.
Specify @option{--reply=no} to make @command{mv} act as if @samp{no} were
given as a response to every prompt about a destination file.
Specify @option{--reply=query} to make @command{mv} prompt the user
about each existing destination file.
Note that @option{--reply=no} has an effect only when @command{mv} would prompt
without @option{-i} or equivalent, i.e., when a destination file exists and is
not writable, standard input is a terminal, and no @option{-f} (or equivalent)
option is specified.

@item -u
@itemx --update
@opindex -u
@opindex --update
@cindex newer files, moving only
Do not move a non-directory that has an existing destination with the
same or newer modification time.
If the move is across file system boundaries, the comparison is to the
source time stamp truncated to the resolutions of the destination file
system and of the system calls used to update time stamps; this avoids
duplicate work if several @samp{mv -u} commands are executed with the
same source and destination.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Print the name of each file before moving it.

@optStripTrailingSlashes

@optBackupSuffix

@optTargetDirectory

@optNoTargetDirectory

@end table

@exitstatus


@node rm invocation
@section @command{rm}: Remove files or directories

@pindex rm
@cindex removing files or directories

@command{rm} removes each given @var{file}.  By default, it does not remove
directories.  Synopsis:

@example
rm [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@cindex prompting, and @command{rm}
If the @option{-I} or @option{--interactive=once} option is given,
and there are more than three files or the @option{-r}, @option{-R},
or @option{--recursive} are given, then @command{rm} prompts the user
for whether to proceed with the entire operation.  If the response is
not affirmative, the entire command is aborted.

Otherwise, if a file is unwritable, standard input is a terminal, and
the @option{-f} or @option{--force} option is not given, or the
@option{-i} or @option{--interactive=always} option @emph{is} given,
@command{rm} prompts the user for whether to remove the file.
If the response is not affirmative, the file is skipped.

Any attempt to remove a file whose last file name component is
@file{.} or @file{..} is rejected without any prompting.

@emph{Warning}: If you use @command{rm} to remove a file, it is usually
possible to recover the contents of that file.  If you want more assurance
that the contents are truly unrecoverable, consider using @command{shred}.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -f
@itemx --force
@opindex -f
@opindex --force
Ignore nonexistent files and never prompt the user.
Ignore any previous @option{--interactive} (@option{-i}) option.

@item -i
@opindex -i
Prompt whether to remove each file.
If the response is not affirmative, the file is skipped.
Ignore any previous @option{--force} (@option{-f}) option.
Equivalent to @option{--interactive=always}.

@item -I
@opindex -I
Prompt once whether to proceed with the command, if more than three
files are named or if a recursive removal is requested.  Ignore any
previous @option{--force} (@option{-f}) option.  Equivalent to
@option{--interactive=once}.

@itemx --interactive [=@var{when}]
@opindex --interactive
Specify when to issue an interactive prompt.  @var{when} may be
omitted, or one of:
@itemize @bullet
@item never
@vindex never @r{interactive option}
- Do not prompt at all.
@item once
@vindex once @r{interactive option}
- Prompt once if more than three files are named or if a recursive
removal is requested.  Equivalent to @option{-I}.
@item always
@vindex always @r{interactive option}
- Prompt for every file being removed.  Equivalent to @option{-i}.
@end itemize
Specifying @option{--interactive} and no @var{when} is equivalent to
@option{--interactive=always}.

@itemx --one-file-system
@opindex --one-file-system
@cindex one file system, restricting @command{rm} to
When removing a hierarchy recursively, skip any directory that is on a
file system different from that of the corresponding command line argument.

This option is useful when removing a build ``chroot'' hierarchy,
which normally contains no valuable data.  However, it is not uncommon
to bind-mount @file{/home} into such a hierarchy, to make it easier to
use one's start-up file.  The catch is that it's easy to forget to
unmount @file{/home}.  Then, when you use @command{rm -rf} to remove
your normally throw-away chroot, that command will remove everything
under @file{/home}, too.
Use the @option{--one-file-system} option, and it will
warn about and skip directories on other file systems.
Of course, this will not save your @file{/home} if it and your
chroot happen to be on the same file system.

@itemx --preserve-root
@opindex --preserve-root
@cindex root directory, disallow recursive destruction
Fail upon any attempt to remove the root directory, @file{/},
when used with the @option{--recursive} option.
This is the default behavior.
@xref{Treating / specially}.

@itemx --no-preserve-root
@opindex --no-preserve-root
@cindex root directory, allow recursive destruction
Do not treat @file{/} specially when removing recursively.
This option is not recommended unless you really want to
remove all the files on your computer.
@xref{Treating / specially}.

@item -r
@itemx -R
@itemx --recursive
@opindex -r
@opindex -R
@opindex --recursive
@cindex directories, removing (recursively)
Remove the listed directories and their contents recursively.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Print the name of each file before removing it.

@end table

@cindex files beginning with @samp{-}, removing
@cindex @samp{-}, removing files beginning with
One common question is how to remove files whose names begin with a
@samp{-}.  @sc{gnu} @command{rm}, like every program that uses the @code{getopt}
function to parse its arguments, lets you use the @samp{--} option to
indicate that all following arguments are non-options.  To remove a file
called @file{-f} in the current directory, you could type either:

@example
rm -- -f
@end example

@noindent
or:

@example
rm ./-f
@end example

@opindex - @r{and Unix @command{rm}}
The Unix @command{rm} program's use of a single @samp{-} for this purpose
predates the development of the getopt standard syntax.

@exitstatus


@node shred invocation
@section @command{shred}: Remove files more securely

@pindex shred
@cindex data, erasing
@cindex erasing data

@command{shred} overwrites devices or files, to help prevent even
very expensive hardware from recovering the data.

Ordinarily when you remove a file (@pxref{rm invocation}), the data is
not actually destroyed.  Only the index listing where the file is
stored is destroyed, and the storage is made available for reuse.
There are undelete utilities that will attempt to reconstruct the index
and can bring the file back if the parts were not reused.

On a busy system with a nearly-full drive, space can get reused in a few
seconds.  But there is no way to know for sure.  If you have sensitive
data, you may want to be sure that recovery is not possible by actually
overwriting the file with non-sensitive data.

However, even after doing that, it is possible to take the disk back
to a laboratory and use a lot of sensitive (and expensive) equipment
to look for the faint ``echoes'' of the original data underneath the
overwritten data.  If the data has only been overwritten once, it's not
even that hard.

The best way to remove something irretrievably is to destroy the media
it's on with acid, melt it down, or the like.  For cheap removable media
like floppy disks, this is the preferred method.  However, hard drives
are expensive and hard to melt, so the @command{shred} utility tries
to achieve a similar effect non-destructively.

This uses many overwrite passes, with the data patterns chosen to
maximize the damage they do to the old data.  While this will work on
floppies, the patterns are designed for best effect on hard drives.
For more details, see the source code and Peter Gutmann's paper
@uref{http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/~pgut001/pubs/secure_del.html,
@cite{Secure Deletion of Data from Magnetic and Solid-State Memory}},
from the proceedings of the Sixth @acronym{USENIX} Security Symposium (San Jose,
California, July 22--25, 1996).

@strong{Please note} that @command{shred} relies on a very important assumption:
that the file system overwrites data in place.  This is the traditional
way to do things, but many modern file system designs do not satisfy this
assumption.  Exceptions include:

@itemize @bullet

@item
Log-structured or journaled file systems, such as those supplied with
AIX and Solaris, and JFS, ReiserFS, XFS, Ext3 (in @code{data=journal} mode),
BFS, NTFS, etc.@: when they are configured to journal @emph{data}.

@item
File systems that write redundant data and carry on even if some writes
fail, such as RAID-based file systems.

@item
File systems that make snapshots, such as Network Appliance's NFS server.

@item
File systems that cache in temporary locations, such as NFS version 3
clients.

@item
Compressed file systems.
@end itemize

In the particular case of ext3 file systems, the above disclaimer applies (and
@command{shred} is thus of limited effectiveness) only in @code{data=journal}
mode, which journals file data in addition to just metadata. In both
the @code{data=ordered} (default) and @code{data=writeback} modes,
@command{shred} works as usual.  Ext3 journaling modes can be changed
by adding the @code{data=something} option to the mount options for a
particular file system in the @file{/etc/fstab} file, as documented in
the mount man page (man mount).

If you are not sure how your file system operates, then you should assume
that it does not overwrite data in place, which means that shred cannot
reliably operate on regular files in your file system.

Generally speaking, it is more reliable to shred a device than a file,
since this bypasses the problem of file system design mentioned above.
However, even shredding devices is not always completely reliable.  For
example, most disks map out bad sectors invisibly to the application; if
the bad sectors contain sensitive data, @command{shred} won't be able to
destroy it.

@command{shred} makes no attempt to detect or report this problem, just as
it makes no attempt to do anything about backups.  However, since it is
more reliable to shred devices than files, @command{shred} by default does
not truncate or remove the output file.  This default is more suitable
for devices, which typically cannot be truncated and should not be
removed.

Finally, consider the risk of backups and mirrors.
File system backups and remote mirrors may contain copies of the
file that cannot be removed, and that will allow a shredded file
to be recovered later.  So if you keep any data you may later want
to destroy using @command{shred}, be sure that it is not backed up or mirrored.

@example
shred [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{file}[@dots{}]
@end example

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -f
@itemx --force
@opindex -f
@opindex --force
@cindex force deletion
Override file permissions if necessary to allow overwriting.

@item -@var{NUMBER}
@itemx -n @var{NUMBER}
@itemx --iterations=@var{NUMBER}
@opindex -n @var{NUMBER}
@opindex --iterations=@var{NUMBER}
@cindex iterations, selecting the number of
By default, @command{shred} uses 25 passes of overwrite.  This is enough
for all of the useful overwrite patterns to be used at least once.
You can reduce this to save time, or increase it if you have a lot of
time to waste.

@item --random-source=@var{file}
@opindex --random-source
@cindex random source for shredding
Use @var{file} as a source of random data used to overwrite and to
choose pass ordering.  @xref{Random sources}.

@item -s @var{BYTES}
@itemx --size=@var{BYTES}
@opindex -s @var{BYTES}
@opindex --size=@var{BYTES}
@cindex size of file to shred
Shred the first @var{BYTES} bytes of the file.  The default is to shred
the whole file.  @var{BYTES} can be followed by a size specification like
@samp{K}, @samp{M}, or @samp{G} to specify a multiple.  @xref{Block size}.

@item -u
@itemx --remove
@opindex -u
@opindex --remove
@cindex removing files after shredding
After shredding a file, truncate it (if possible) and then remove it.
If a file has multiple links, only the named links will be removed.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Display status updates as sterilization proceeds.

@item -x
@itemx --exact
@opindex -x
@opindex --exact
By default, @command{shred} rounds the size of a regular file up to the next
multiple of the file system block size to fully erase the last block of the file.
Use @option{--exact} to suppress that behavior.
Thus, by default if you shred a 10-byte regular file on a system with 512-byte
blocks, the resulting file will be 512 bytes long.  With this option,
shred does not increase the apparent size of the file.

@item -z
@itemx --zero
@opindex -z
@opindex --zero
Normally, the last pass that @command{shred} writes is made up of
random data.  If this would be conspicuous on your hard drive (for
example, because it looks like encrypted data), or you just think
it's tidier, the @option{--zero} option adds an additional overwrite pass with
all zero bits.  This is in addition to the number of passes specified
by the @option{--iterations} option.

@end table

You might use the following command to erase all trace of the
file system you'd created on the floppy disk in your first drive.
That command takes about 20 minutes to erase a ``1.44MB'' (actually
1440 KiB) floppy.

@example
shred --verbose /dev/fd0
@end example

Similarly, to erase all data on a selected partition of
your hard disk, you could give a command like this:

@example
shred --verbose /dev/sda5
@end example

A @var{file} of @samp{-} denotes standard output.
The intended use of this is to shred a removed temporary file.
For example:

@example
i=`tempfile -m 0600`
exec 3<>"$i"
rm -- "$i"
echo "Hello, world" >&3
shred - >&3
exec 3>-
@end example

However, the command @samp{shred - >file} does not shred the contents
of @var{file}, since the shell truncates @var{file} before invoking
@command{shred}.  Use the command @samp{shred file} or (if using a
Bourne-compatible shell) the command @samp{shred - 1<>file} instead.

@exitstatus


@node Special file types
@chapter Special file types

@cindex special file types
@cindex file types, special

This chapter describes commands which create special types of files (and
@command{rmdir}, which removes directories, one special file type).

@cindex special file types
@cindex file types
Although Unix-like operating systems have markedly fewer special file
types than others, not @emph{everything} can be treated only as the
undifferentiated byte stream of @dfn{normal files}.  For example, when a
file is created or removed, the system must record this information,
which it does in a @dfn{directory}---a special type of file.  Although
you can read directories as normal files, if you're curious, in order
for the system to do its job it must impose a structure, a certain
order, on the bytes of the file.  Thus it is a ``special'' type of file.

Besides directories, other special file types include named pipes
(FIFOs), symbolic links, sockets, and so-called @dfn{special files}.

@menu
* link invocation::             Make a hard link via the link syscall
* ln invocation::               Make links between files.
* mkdir invocation::            Make directories.
* mkfifo invocation::           Make FIFOs (named pipes).
* mknod invocation::            Make block or character special files.
* readlink invocation::         Print the referent of a symbolic link.
* rmdir invocation::            Remove empty directories.
* unlink invocation::           Remove files via the unlink syscall
@end menu


@node link invocation
@section @command{link}: Make a hard link via the link syscall

@pindex link
@cindex links, creating
@cindex hard links, creating
@cindex creating links (hard only)

@command{link} creates a single hard link at a time.
It is a minimalist interface to the system-provided
@code{link} function.  @xref{Hard Links, , , libc,
The GNU C Library Reference Manual}.
It avoids the bells and whistles of the more commonly-used
@command{ln} command (@pxref{ln invocation}).
Synopsis:

@example
link @var{filename} @var{linkname}
@end example

@var{filename} must specify an existing file, and @var{linkname}
must specify a nonexistent entry in an existing directory.
@command{link} simply calls @code{link (@var{filename}, @var{linkname})}
to create the link.

On a @acronym{GNU} system, this command acts like @samp{ln --directory
--no-target-directory @var{filename} @var{linkname}}.  However, the
@option{--directory} and @option{--no-target-directory} options are
not specified by @acronym{POSIX}, and the @command{link} command is
more portable in practice.

@exitstatus


@node ln invocation
@section @command{ln}: Make links between files

@pindex ln
@cindex links, creating
@cindex hard links, creating
@cindex symbolic (soft) links, creating
@cindex creating links (hard or soft)

@cindex file systems and hard links
@command{ln} makes links between files.  By default, it makes hard links;
with the @option{-s} option, it makes symbolic (or @dfn{soft}) links.
Synopses:

@example
ln [@var{option}]@dots{} [-T] @var{target} @var{linkname}
ln [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{target}
ln [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{target}@dots{} @var{directory}
ln [@var{option}]@dots{} -t @var{directory} @var{target}@dots{}
@end example

@itemize @bullet

@item
If two file names are given, @command{ln} creates a link to the first
file from the second.

@item
If one @var{target} is given, @command{ln} creates a link to that file
in the current directory.

@item
If the @option{--target-directory} (@option{-t}) option is given, or
failing that if the last file is a directory and the
@option{--no-target-directory} (@option{-T}) option is not given,
@command{ln} creates a link to each @var{target} file in the specified
directory, using the @var{target}s' names.

@end itemize

Normally @command{ln} does not remove existing files.  Use the
@option{--force} (@option{-f}) option to remove them unconditionally,
the @option{--interactive} (@option{-i}) option to remove them
conditionally, and the @option{--backup} (@option{-b}) option to
rename them.

@cindex hard link, defined
@cindex inode, and hard links
A @dfn{hard link} is another name for an existing file; the link and the
original are indistinguishable.  Technically speaking, they share the
same inode, and the inode contains all the information about a
file---indeed, it is not incorrect to say that the inode @emph{is} the
file.  On all existing implementations, you cannot make a hard link to
a directory, and hard links cannot cross file system boundaries.  (These
restrictions are not mandated by @acronym{POSIX}, however.)

@cindex dereferencing symbolic links
@cindex symbolic link, defined
@dfn{Symbolic links} (@dfn{symlinks} for short), on the other hand, are
a special file type (which not all kernels support: System V release 3
(and older) systems lack symlinks) in which the link file actually
refers to a different file, by name.  When most operations (opening,
reading, writing, and so on) are passed the symbolic link file, the
kernel automatically @dfn{dereferences} the link and operates on the
target of the link.  But some operations (e.g., removing) work on the
link file itself, rather than on its target.  @xref{Symbolic Links,,,
libc, The GNU C Library Reference Manual}.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@optBackup

@item -d
@itemx -F
@itemx --directory
@opindex -d
@opindex -F
@opindex --directory
@cindex hard links to directories
Allow users with appropriate privileges to attempt to make hard links
to directories.
However, note that this will probably fail due to
system restrictions, even for the super-user.

@item -f
@itemx --force
@opindex -f
@opindex --force
Remove existing destination files.

@item -i
@itemx --interactive
@opindex -i
@opindex --interactive
@cindex prompting, and @command{ln}
Prompt whether to remove existing destination files.

@item -n
@itemx --no-dereference
@opindex -n
@opindex --no-dereference
Do not treat the last operand specially when it is a symbolic link to
a directory.  Instead, treat it as if it were a normal file.

When the destination is an actual directory (not a symlink to one),
there is no ambiguity.  The link is created in that directory.
But when the specified destination is a symlink to a directory,
there are two ways to treat the user's request.  @command{ln} can
treat the destination just as it would a normal directory and create
the link in it.  On the other hand, the destination can be viewed as a
non-directory---as the symlink itself.  In that case, @command{ln}
must delete or backup that symlink before creating the new link.
The default is to treat a destination that is a symlink to a directory
just like a directory.

This option is weaker than the @option{--no-target-directory}
(@option{-T}) option, so it has no effect if both options are given.

@item -s
@itemx --symbolic
@opindex -s
@opindex --symbolic
Make symbolic links instead of hard links.  This option merely produces
an error message on systems that do not support symbolic links.

@optBackupSuffix

@optTargetDirectory

@optNoTargetDirectory

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Print the name of each file after linking it successfully.

@end table

@exitstatus

Examples:

@smallexample
Bad Example:

# Create link ../a pointing to a in that directory.
# Not really useful because it points to itself.
ln -s a ..

Better Example:

# Change to the target before creating symlinks to avoid being confused.
cd ..
ln -s adir/a .

Bad Example:

# Hard coded file names don't move well.
ln -s $(pwd)/a /some/dir/

Better Example:

# Relative file names survive directory moves and also
# work across networked file systems.
ln -s afile anotherfile
ln -s ../adir/afile yetanotherfile
@end smallexample


@node mkdir invocation
@section @command{mkdir}: Make directories

@pindex mkdir
@cindex directories, creating
@cindex creating directories

@command{mkdir} creates directories with the specified names.  Synopsis:

@example
mkdir [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{name}@dots{}
@end example

@command{mkdir} creates each directory @var{name} in the order given.
It reports an error if @var{name} already exists, unless the
@option{-p} option is given and @var{name} is a directory.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -m @var{mode}
@itemx --mode=@var{mode}
@opindex -m
@opindex --mode
@cindex modes of created directories, setting
Set the file permission bits of created directories to @var{mode},
which uses the same syntax as
in @command{chmod} and uses @samp{a=rwx} (read, write and execute allowed for
everyone) for the point of the departure.  @xref{File permissions}.

Normally the directory has the desired file mode bits at the moment it
is created.  As a @acronym{GNU} extension, @var{mode} may also mention
special mode bits, but in this case there may be a temporary window
during which the directory exists but its special mode bits are
incorrect.  @xref{Directory Setuid and Setgid}, for how the
set-user-ID and set-group-ID bits of directories are inherited unless
overridden in this way.

@item -p
@itemx --parents
@opindex -p
@opindex --parents
@cindex parent directories, creating
Make any missing parent directories for each argument, setting their
file permission bits to the umask modified by @samp{u+wx}.  Ignore
existing parent directories, and do not change their file permission
bits.

To set the file permission bits of any newly-created parent
directories to a value that includes @samp{u+wx}, you can set the
umask before invoking @command{mkdir}.  For example, if the shell
command @samp{(umask u=rwx,go=rx; mkdir -p P/Q)} creates the parent
@file{P} it sets the parent's permission bits to @samp{u=rwx,go=rx}.
To set a parent's special mode bits as well, you can invoke
@command{chmod} after @command{mkdir}.  @xref{Directory Setuid and
Setgid}, for how the set-user-ID and set-group-ID bits of
newly-created parent directories are inherited.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Print a message for each created directory.  This is most useful with
@option{--parents}.
@end table

@exitstatus


@node mkfifo invocation
@section @command{mkfifo}: Make FIFOs (named pipes)

@pindex mkfifo
@cindex FIFOs, creating
@cindex named pipes, creating
@cindex creating FIFOs (named pipes)

@command{mkfifo} creates FIFOs (also called @dfn{named pipes}) with the
specified names.  Synopsis:

@example
mkfifo [@var{option}] @var{name}@dots{}
@end example

A @dfn{FIFO} is a special file type that permits independent processes
to communicate.  One process opens the FIFO file for writing, and
another for reading, after which data can flow as with the usual
anonymous pipe in shells or elsewhere.

The program accepts the following option.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -m @var{mode}
@itemx --mode=@var{mode}
@opindex -m
@opindex --mode
@cindex modes of created FIFOs, setting
Set the mode of created FIFOs to @var{mode}, which is symbolic as in
@command{chmod} and uses @samp{a=rw} (read and write allowed for everyone)
for the point of departure.  @var{mode} should specify only file
permission bits.  @xref{File permissions}.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node mknod invocation
@section @command{mknod}: Make block or character special files

@pindex mknod
@cindex block special files, creating
@cindex character special files, creating

@command{mknod} creates a FIFO, character special file, or block special
file with the specified name.  Synopsis:

@example
mknod [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{name} @var{type} [@var{major} @var{minor}]
@end example

@cindex special files
@cindex block special files
@cindex character special files
Unlike the phrase ``special file type'' above, the term @dfn{special
file} has a technical meaning on Unix: something that can generate or
receive data.  Usually this corresponds to a physical piece of hardware,
e.g., a printer or a disk.  (These files are typically created at
system-configuration time.)  The @command{mknod} command is what creates
files of this type.  Such devices can be read either a character at a
time or a ``block'' (many characters) at a time, hence we say there are
@dfn{block special} files and @dfn{character special} files.

The arguments after @var{name} specify the type of file to make:

@table @samp

@item p
@opindex p @r{for FIFO file}
for a FIFO

@item b
@opindex b @r{for block special file}
for a block special file

@item c
@c Don't document the `u' option -- it's just a synonym for `c'.
@c Do *any* versions of mknod still use it?
@c @itemx u
@opindex c @r{for character special file}
@c @opindex u @r{for character special file}
for a character special file

@end table

When making a block or character special file, the major and minor
device numbers must be given after the file type.
If a major or minor device number begins with @samp{0x} or @samp{0X},
it is interpreted as hexadecimal; otherwise, if it begins with @samp{0},
as octal; otherwise, as decimal.

The program accepts the following option.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -m @var{mode}
@itemx --mode=@var{mode}
@opindex -m
@opindex --mode
Set the mode of created files to @var{mode}, which is symbolic as in
@command{chmod} and uses @samp{a=rw} as the point of departure.
@var{mode} should specify only file permission bits.
@xref{File permissions}.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node readlink invocation
@section @command{readlink}: Print the referent of a symbolic link

@pindex readlink
@cindex displaying value of a symbolic link

@command{readlink} may work in one of two supported modes:

@table @samp

@item Readlink mode

@command{readlink} outputs the value of the given symbolic link.
If @command{readlink} is invoked with an argument other than the name
of a symbolic link, it produces no output and exits with a nonzero exit code.

@item Canonicalize mode

@command{readlink} outputs the absolute name of the given file which contains
no @file{.}, @file{..} components nor any repeated separators
(@file{/}) or symbolic links.

@end table

@example
readlink [@var{option}] @var{file}
@end example

By default, @command{readlink} operates in readlink mode.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -f
@itemx --canonicalize
@opindex -f
@opindex --canonicalize
Activate canonicalize mode.
If any component of the file name except the last one is missing or unavailable,
@command{readlink} produces no output and exits with a nonzero exit code.

@item -e
@itemx --canonicalize-existing
@opindex -e
@opindex --canonicalize-existing
Activate canonicalize mode.
If any component is missing or unavailable, @command{readlink} produces
no output and exits with a nonzero exit code.

@item -m
@itemx --canonicalize-missing
@opindex -m
@opindex --canonicalize-missing
Activate canonicalize mode.
If any component is missing or unavailable, @command{readlink} treats it
as a directory.

@item -n
@itemx --no-newline
@opindex -n
@opindex --no-newline
Do not output the trailing newline.

@item -s
@itemx -q
@itemx --silent
@itemx --quiet
@opindex -s
@opindex -q
@opindex --silent
@opindex --quiet
Suppress most error messages.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Report error messages.

@end table

The @command{readlink} utility first appeared in OpenBSD 2.1.

@exitstatus


@node rmdir invocation
@section @command{rmdir}: Remove empty directories

@pindex rmdir
@cindex removing empty directories
@cindex directories, removing empty

@command{rmdir} removes empty directories.  Synopsis:

@example
rmdir [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{directory}@dots{}
@end example

If any @var{directory} argument does not refer to an existing empty
directory, it is an error.

The program accepts the following option.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item --ignore-fail-on-non-empty
@opindex --ignore-fail-on-non-empty
@cindex directory deletion, ignoring failures
Ignore each failure to remove a directory that is solely because
the directory is non-empty.

@item -p
@itemx --parents
@opindex -p
@opindex --parents
@cindex parent directories, removing
Remove @var{directory}, then try to remove each component of @var{directory}.
So, for example, @samp{rmdir -p a/b/c} is similar to @samp{rmdir a/b/c a/b a}.
As such, it fails if any of those directories turns out not to be empty.
Use the @option{--ignore-fail-on-non-empty} option to make it so such
a failure does not evoke a diagnostic and does not cause @command{rmdir} to
exit unsuccessfully.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
@cindex directory deletion, reporting
Give a diagnostic for each successful removal.
@var{directory} is removed.

@end table

@xref{rm invocation}, for how to remove non-empty directories (recursively).

@exitstatus


@node unlink invocation
@section @command{unlink}: Remove files via the unlink syscall

@pindex unlink
@cindex removing files or directories (via the unlink syscall)

@command{unlink} deletes a single specified file name.
It is a minimalist interface to the system-provided
@code{unlink} function.  @xref{Deleting Files, , , libc,
The GNU C Library Reference Manual}.  Synopsis:
It avoids the bells and whistles of the more commonly-used
@command{rm} command (@pxref{rm invocation}).

@example
unlink @var{filename}
@end example

On some systems @code{unlink} can be used to delete the name of a
directory.  On others, it can be used that way only by a privileged user.
In the GNU system @code{unlink} can never delete the name of a directory.

The @command{unlink} command honors the @option{--help} and
@option{--version} options.  To remove a file whose name begins with
@samp{-}, prefix the name with @samp{./}, e.g., @samp{unlink ./--help}.

@exitstatus


@node Changing file attributes
@chapter Changing file attributes

@cindex changing file attributes
@cindex file attributes, changing
@cindex attributes, file

A file is not merely its contents, a name, and a file type
(@pxref{Special file types}).  A file also has an owner (a user ID), a
group (a group ID), permissions (what the owner can do with the file,
what people in the group can do, and what everyone else can do), various
timestamps, and other information.  Collectively, we call these a file's
@dfn{attributes}.

These commands change file attributes.

@menu
* chgrp invocation::            Change file groups.
* chmod invocation::            Change access permissions.
* chown invocation::            Change file owners and groups.
* touch invocation::            Change file timestamps.
@end menu


@node chown invocation
@section @command{chown}: Change file owner and group

@pindex chown
@cindex file ownership, changing
@cindex group ownership, changing
@cindex changing file ownership
@cindex changing group ownership

@command{chown} changes the user and/or group ownership of each given @var{file}
to @var{new-owner} or to the user and group of an existing reference file.
Synopsis:

@example
chown [@var{option}]@dots{} @{@var{new-owner} | --reference=@var{ref_file}@} @var{file}@dots{}
@end example

If used, @var{new-owner} specifies the new owner and/or group as follows
(with no embedded white space):

@example
[@var{owner}] [ : [@var{group}] ]
@end example

Specifically:

@table @var
@item owner
If only an @var{owner} (a user name or numeric user ID) is given, that
user is made the owner of each given file, and the files' group is not
changed.

@item owner@samp{:}group
If the @var{owner} is followed by a colon and a @var{group} (a
group name or numeric group ID), with no spaces between them, the group
ownership of the files is changed as well (to @var{group}).

@item owner@samp{:}
If a colon but no group name follows @var{owner}, that user is
made the owner of the files and the group of the files is changed to
@var{owner}'s login group.

@item @samp{:}group
If the colon and following @var{group} are given, but the owner
is omitted, only the group of the files is changed; in this case,
@command{chown} performs the same function as @command{chgrp}.

@item @samp{:}
If only a colon is given, or if @var{new-owner} is empty, neither the
owner nor the group is changed.

@end table

If @var{owner} or @var{group} is intended to represent a numeric user
or group ID, then you may specify it with a leading @samp{+}.
@xref{Disambiguating names and IDs}.

Some older scripts may still use @samp{.} in place of the @samp{:} separator.
@acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards conformance}) does not
require support for that, but for backward compatibility @acronym{GNU}
@command{chown} supports @samp{.} so long as no ambiguity results.
New scripts should avoid the use of @samp{.} because it is not
portable, and because it has undesirable results if the entire
@var{owner@samp{.}group} happens to identify a user whose name
contains @samp{.}.

The @command{chown} command sometimes clears the set-user-ID or
set-group-ID permission bits.  This behavior depends on the policy and
functionality of the underlying @code{chown} system call, which may
make system-dependent file mode modifications outside the control of
the @command{chown} command.  For example, the @command{chown} command
might not affect those bits when invoked by a user with appropriate
privileges, or when the
bits signify some function other than executable permission (e.g.,
mandatory locking).
When in doubt, check the underlying system behavior.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -c
@itemx --changes
@opindex -c
@opindex --changes
@cindex changed owners, verbosely describing
Verbosely describe the action for each @var{file} whose ownership
actually changes.

@item -f
@itemx --silent
@itemx --quiet
@opindex -f
@opindex --silent
@opindex --quiet
@cindex error messages, omitting
Do not print error messages about files whose ownership cannot be
changed.

@itemx @w{@kbd{--from}=@var{old-owner}}
@opindex --from
@cindex symbolic links, changing owner
Change a @var{file}'s ownership only if it has current attributes specified
by @var{old-owner}.  @var{old-owner} has the same form as @var{new-owner}
described above.
This option is useful primarily from a security standpoint in that
it narrows considerably the window of potential abuse.
For example, to reflect a user ID numbering change for one user's files
without an option like this, @code{root} might run

@smallexample
find / -owner OLDUSER -print0 | xargs -0 chown -h NEWUSER
@end smallexample

But that is dangerous because the interval between when the @command{find}
tests the existing file's owner and when the @command{chown} is actually run
may be quite large.
One way to narrow the gap would be to invoke chown for each file
as it is found:

@example
find / -owner OLDUSER -exec chown -h NEWUSER @{@} \;
@end example

But that is very slow if there are many affected files.
With this option, it is safer (the gap is narrower still)
though still not perfect:

@example
chown -h -R --from=OLDUSER NEWUSER /
@end example

@item --dereference
@opindex --dereference
@cindex symbolic links, changing owner
@findex lchown
Do not act on symbolic links themselves but rather on what they point to.
This is the default.

@item -h
@itemx --no-dereference
@opindex -h
@opindex --no-dereference
@cindex symbolic links, changing owner
@findex lchown
Act on symbolic links themselves instead of what they point to.
This mode relies on the @code{lchown} system call.
On systems that do not provide the @code{lchown} system call,
@command{chown} fails when a file specified on the command line
is a symbolic link.
By default, no diagnostic is issued for symbolic links encountered
during a recursive traversal, but see @option{--verbose}.

@itemx --preserve-root
@opindex --preserve-root
@cindex root directory, disallow recursive modification
Fail upon any attempt to recursively change the root directory, @file{/}.
Without @option{--recursive}, this option has no effect.
@xref{Treating / specially}.

@itemx --no-preserve-root
@opindex --no-preserve-root
@cindex root directory, allow recursive modification
Cancel the effect of any preceding @option{--preserve-root} option.
@xref{Treating / specially}.

@item --reference=@var{ref_file}
@opindex --reference
Change the user and group of each @var{file} to be the same as those of
@var{ref_file}.  If @var{ref_file} is a symbolic link, do not use the
user and group of the symbolic link, but rather those of the file it
refers to.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Output a diagnostic for every file processed.
If a symbolic link is encountered during a recursive traversal
on a system without the @code{lchown} system call, and @option{--no-dereference}
is in effect, then issue a diagnostic saying neither the symbolic link nor
its referent is being changed.

@item -R
@itemx --recursive
@opindex -R
@opindex --recursive
@cindex recursively changing file ownership
Recursively change ownership of directories and their contents.

@choptH
@xref{Traversing symlinks}.

@choptL
@xref{Traversing symlinks}.

@choptP
@xref{Traversing symlinks}.

@end table

@exitstatus

Examples:

@smallexample
# Change the owner of /u to "root".
chown root /u

# Likewise, but also change its group to "staff".
chown root:staff /u

# Change the owner of /u and subfiles to "root".
chown -hR root /u
@end smallexample


@node chgrp invocation
@section @command{chgrp}: Change group ownership

@pindex chgrp
@cindex group ownership, changing
@cindex changing group ownership

@command{chgrp} changes the group ownership of each given @var{file}
to @var{group} (which can be either a group name or a numeric group ID)
or to the group of an existing reference file.  Synopsis:

@example
chgrp [@var{option}]@dots{} @{@var{group} | --reference=@var{ref_file}@} @var{file}@dots{}
@end example

If @var{group} is intended to represent a
numeric group ID, then you may specify it with a leading @samp{+}.
@xref{Disambiguating names and IDs}.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -c
@itemx --changes
@opindex -c
@opindex --changes
@cindex changed files, verbosely describing
Verbosely describe the action for each @var{file} whose group actually
changes.

@item -f
@itemx --silent
@itemx --quiet
@opindex -f
@opindex --silent
@opindex --quiet
@cindex error messages, omitting
Do not print error messages about files whose group cannot be
changed.

@item --dereference
@opindex --dereference
@cindex symbolic links, changing owner
@findex lchown
Do not act on symbolic links themselves but rather on what they point to.
This is the default.

@item -h
@itemx --no-dereference
@opindex -h
@opindex --no-dereference
@cindex symbolic links, changing group
@findex lchown
Act on symbolic links themselves instead of what they point to.
This mode relies on the @code{lchown} system call.
On systems that do not provide the @code{lchown} system call,
@command{chgrp} fails when a file specified on the command line
is a symbolic link.
By default, no diagnostic is issued for symbolic links encountered
during a recursive traversal, but see @option{--verbose}.

@itemx --preserve-root
@opindex --preserve-root
@cindex root directory, disallow recursive modification
Fail upon any attempt to recursively change the root directory, @file{/}.
Without @option{--recursive}, this option has no effect.
@xref{Treating / specially}.

@itemx --no-preserve-root
@opindex --no-preserve-root
@cindex root directory, allow recursive modification
Cancel the effect of any preceding @option{--preserve-root} option.
@xref{Treating / specially}.

@item --reference=@var{ref_file}
@opindex --reference
Change the group of each @var{file} to be the same as that of
@var{ref_file}.  If @var{ref_file} is a symbolic link, do not use the
group of the symbolic link, but rather that of the file it refers to.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Output a diagnostic for every file processed.
If a symbolic link is encountered during a recursive traversal
on a system without the @code{lchown} system call, and @option{--no-dereference}
is in effect, then issue a diagnostic saying neither the symbolic link nor
its referent is being changed.

@item -R
@itemx --recursive
@opindex -R
@opindex --recursive
@cindex recursively changing group ownership
Recursively change the group ownership of directories and their contents.

@choptH
@xref{Traversing symlinks}.

@choptL
@xref{Traversing symlinks}.

@choptP
@xref{Traversing symlinks}.

@end table

@exitstatus

Examples:

@smallexample
# Change the group of /u to "staff".
chgrp staff /u

# Change the group of /u and subfiles to "staff".
chgrp -hR staff /u
@end smallexample


@node chmod invocation
@section @command{chmod}: Change access permissions

@pindex chmod
@cindex changing access permissions
@cindex access permissions, changing
@cindex permissions, changing access

@command{chmod} changes the access permissions of the named files.  Synopsis:

@example
chmod [@var{option}]@dots{} @{@var{mode} | --reference=@var{ref_file}@} @var{file}@dots{}
@end example

@cindex symbolic links, permissions of
@command{chmod} never changes the permissions of symbolic links, since
the @command{chmod} system call cannot change their permissions.
This is not a problem since the permissions of symbolic links are
never used.  However, for each symbolic link listed on the command
line, @command{chmod} changes the permissions of the pointed-to file.
In contrast, @command{chmod} ignores symbolic links encountered during
recursive directory traversals.

A successful use of @command{chmod} clears the set-group-ID bit of a
regular file if the file's group ID does not match the user's
effective group ID or one of the user's supplementary group IDs,
unless the user has appropriate privileges.  Additional restrictions
may cause the set-user-ID and set-group-ID bits of @var{mode} or
@var{ref_file} to be ignored.  This behavior depends on the policy and
functionality of the underlying @code{chmod} system call.  When in
doubt, check the underlying system behavior.

If used, @var{mode} specifies the new file mode bits.
For details, see the section on @ref{File permissions}.
If you really want @var{mode} to have a leading @samp{-}, you should
use @option{--} first, e.g., @samp{chmod -- -w file}.  Typically,
though, @samp{chmod a-w file} is preferable, and @command{chmod -w
file} (without the @option{--}) complains if it behaves differently
from what @samp{chmod a-w file} would do.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -c
@itemx --changes
@opindex -c
@opindex --changes
Verbosely describe the action for each @var{file} whose permissions
actually changes.

@item -f
@itemx --silent
@itemx --quiet
@opindex -f
@opindex --silent
@opindex --quiet
@cindex error messages, omitting
Do not print error messages about files whose permissions cannot be
changed.

@itemx --preserve-root
@opindex --preserve-root
@cindex root directory, disallow recursive modification
Fail upon any attempt to recursively change the root directory, @file{/}.
Without @option{--recursive}, this option has no effect.
@xref{Treating / specially}.

@itemx --no-preserve-root
@opindex --no-preserve-root
@cindex root directory, allow recursive modification
Cancel the effect of any preceding @option{--preserve-root} option.
@xref{Treating / specially}.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Verbosely describe the action or non-action taken for every @var{file}.

@item --reference=@var{ref_file}
@opindex --reference
Change the mode of each @var{file} to be the same as that of @var{ref_file}.
@xref{File permissions}.
If @var{ref_file} is a symbolic link, do not use the mode
of the symbolic link, but rather that of the file it refers to.

@item -R
@itemx --recursive
@opindex -R
@opindex --recursive
@cindex recursively changing access permissions
Recursively change permissions of directories and their contents.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node touch invocation
@section @command{touch}: Change file timestamps

@pindex touch
@cindex changing file timestamps
@cindex file timestamps, changing
@cindex timestamps, changing file

@command{touch} changes the access and/or modification times of the
specified files.  Synopsis:

@example
touch [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{file}@dots{}
@end example

@cindex empty files, creating
Any @var{file} that does not exist is created empty.

A @var{file} of @samp{-} causes @command{touch} to change the
times of the file associated with standard output.

@cindex permissions, for changing file timestamps
If changing both the access and modification times to the current
time, @command{touch} can change the timestamps for files that the user
running it does not own but has write permission for.  Otherwise, the
user must own the files.

Although @command{touch} provides options for changing two of the times---the
times of last access and modification---of a file, there is actually
a third one as well: the inode change time.  This is often referred to
as a file's @code{ctime}.
The inode change time represents the time when the file's meta-information
last changed.  One common example of this is when the permissions of a
file change.  Changing the permissions doesn't access the file, so
the atime doesn't change, nor does it modify the file, so the mtime
doesn't change.  Yet, something about the file itself has changed,
and this must be noted somewhere.  This is the job of the ctime field.
This is necessary, so that, for example, a backup program can make a
fresh copy of the file, including the new permissions value.
Another operation that modifies a file's ctime without affecting
the others is renaming.  In any case, it is not possible, in normal
operations, for a user to change the ctime field to a user-specified value.

@vindex TZ
Time stamps assume the time zone rules specified by the @env{TZ}
environment variable, or by the system default rules if @env{TZ} is
not set.  @xref{TZ Variable,, Specifying the Time Zone with @env{TZ},
libc, The GNU C Library}.  You can avoid ambiguities during
daylight saving transitions by using @sc{utc} time stamps.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -a
@itemx --time=atime
@itemx --time=access
@itemx --time=use
@opindex -a
@opindex --time
@opindex atime@r{, changing}
@opindex access @r{time, changing}
@opindex use @r{time, changing}
Change the access time only.

@item -c
@itemx --no-create
@opindex -c
@opindex --no-create
Do not create files that do not exist.

@item -d
@itemx --date=@var{time}
@opindex -d
@opindex --date
@opindex time
Use @var{time} instead of the current time.  It can contain month names,
time zones, @samp{am} and @samp{pm}, @samp{yesterday}, etc.  For
example, @option{--date="2004-02-27 14:19:13.489392193 +0530"}
specifies the instant of time that is 489,392,193 nanoseconds after
February 27, 2004 at 2:19:13 PM in a time zone that is 5 hours and 30
minutes east of @acronym{UTC}.  @xref{Date input formats}.
File systems that do not support high-resolution time stamps
silently ignore any excess precision here.

@item -f
@opindex -f
@cindex BSD @command{touch} compatibility
Ignored; for compatibility with BSD versions of @command{touch}.

@item -m
@itemx --time=mtime
@itemx --time=modify
@opindex -m
@opindex --time
@opindex mtime@r{, changing}
@opindex modify @r{time, changing}
Change the modification time only.

@item -r @var{file}
@itemx --reference=@var{file}
@opindex -r
@opindex --reference
Use the times of the reference @var{file} instead of the current time.
If this option is combined with the @option{--date=@var{time}}
(@option{-d @var{time}}) option, the reference @var{file}'s time is
the origin for any relative @var{time}s given, but is otherwise ignored.
For example, @samp{-r foo -d '-5 seconds'} specifies a time stamp
equal to five seconds before the corresponding time stamp for @file{foo}.

@item -t [[@var{CC}]@var{YY}]@var{MMDDhhmm}[.@var{ss}]
Use the argument (optional four-digit or two-digit years, months,
days, hours, minutes, optional seconds) instead of the current time.
If the year is specified with only two digits, then @var{CC}
is 20 for years in the range 0 @dots{} 68, and 19 for years in
69 @dots{} 99.  If no digits of the year are specified,
the argument is interpreted as a date in the current year.

@end table

@vindex _POSIX2_VERSION
On older systems, @command{touch} supports an obsolete syntax, as follows.
If no timestamp is given with any of the @option{-d}, @option{-r}, or
@option{-t} options, and if there are two or more @var{file}s and the
first @var{file} is of the form @samp{@var{MMDDhhmm}[@var{YY}]} and this
would be a valid argument to the @option{-t} option (if the @var{YY}, if
any, were moved to the front), and if the represented year
is in the range 1969--1999, that argument is interpreted as the time
for the other files instead of as a file name.
This obsolete behavior can be enabled or disabled with the
@env{_POSIX2_VERSION} environment variable (@pxref{Standards
conformance}), but portable scripts should avoid commands whose
behavior depends on this variable.
For example, use @samp{touch ./12312359 main.c} or @samp{touch -t
12312359 main.c} rather than the ambiguous @samp{touch 12312359 main.c}.

@exitstatus


@node Disk usage
@chapter Disk usage

@cindex disk usage

No disk can hold an infinite amount of data.  These commands report
how much disk storage is in use or available, report other file and
file status information, and write buffers to disk.

@menu
* df invocation::               Report file system disk space usage.
* du invocation::               Estimate file space usage.
* stat invocation::             Report file or file system status.
* sync invocation::             Synchronize memory and disk.
@end menu


@node df invocation
@section @command{df}: Report file system disk space usage

@pindex df
@cindex file system disk usage
@cindex disk usage by file system

@command{df} reports the amount of disk space used and available on
file systems.  Synopsis:

@example
df [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

With no arguments, @command{df} reports the space used and available on all
currently mounted file systems (of all types).  Otherwise, @command{df}
reports on the file system containing each argument @var{file}.

Normally the disk space is printed in units of
1024 bytes, but this can be overridden (@pxref{Block size}).
Non-integer quantities are rounded up to the next higher unit.

@cindex disk device file
@cindex device file, disk
If an argument @var{file} is a disk device file containing a mounted
file system, @command{df} shows the space available on that file system
rather than on the file system containing the device node (i.e., the root
file system).  @sc{gnu} @command{df} does not attempt to determine the disk usage
on unmounted file systems, because on most kinds of systems doing so
requires extremely nonportable intimate knowledge of file system
structures.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -a
@itemx --all
@opindex -a
@opindex --all
@cindex automounter file systems
@cindex ignore file systems
Include in the listing dummy file systems, which
are omitted by default.  Such file systems are typically special-purpose
pseudo-file-systems, such as automounter entries.

@item -B @var{size}
@itemx --block-size=@var{size}
@opindex -B
@opindex --block-size
@cindex file system sizes
Scale sizes by @var{size} before printing them (@pxref{Block size}).
For example, @option{-BG} prints sizes in units of 1,073,741,824 bytes.

@optHumanReadable

@item -H
@opindex -H
Equivalent to @option{--si}.

@item -i
@itemx --inodes
@opindex -i
@opindex --inodes
@cindex inode usage
List inode usage information instead of block usage.  An inode (short
for index node) contains information about a file such as its owner,
permissions, timestamps, and location on the disk.

@item -k
@opindex -k
@cindex kibibytes for file system sizes
Print sizes in 1024-byte blocks, overriding the default block size
(@pxref{Block size}).
This option is equivalent to @option{--block-size=1K}.

@item -l
@itemx --local
@opindex -l
@opindex --local
@cindex file system types, limiting output to certain
Limit the listing to local file systems.  By default, remote file systems
are also listed.

@item --no-sync
@opindex --no-sync
@cindex file system space, retrieving old data more quickly
Do not invoke the @code{sync} system call before getting any usage data.
This may make @command{df} run significantly faster on systems with many
disks, but on some systems (notably SunOS) the results may be slightly
out of date.  This is the default.

@item -P
@itemx --portability
@opindex -P
@opindex --portability
@cindex one-line output format
@cindex @acronym{POSIX} output format
@cindex portable output format
@cindex output format, portable
Use the @acronym{POSIX} output format.  This is like the default format except
for the following:

@enumerate
@item
The information about each file system is always printed on exactly
one line; a mount device is never put on a line by itself.  This means
that if the mount device name is more than 20 characters long (e.g., for
some network mounts), the columns are misaligned.

@item
The labels in the header output line are changed to conform to @acronym{POSIX}.

@item
The default block size and output format are unaffected by the
@env{DF_BLOCK_SIZE}, @env{BLOCK_SIZE} and @env{BLOCKSIZE} environment
variables.  However, the default block size is still affected by
@env{POSIXLY_CORRECT}: it is 512 if @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is set, 1024
otherwise.  @xref{Block size}.
@end enumerate

@optSi

@item --sync
@opindex --sync
@cindex file system space, retrieving current data more slowly
Invoke the @code{sync} system call before getting any usage data.  On
some systems (notably SunOS), doing this yields more up to date results,
but in general this option makes @command{df} much slower, especially when
there are many or very busy file systems.

@item -t @var{fstype}
@itemx --type=@var{fstype}
@opindex -t
@opindex --type
@cindex file system types, limiting output to certain
Limit the listing to file systems of type @var{fstype}.  Multiple
file system types can be specified by giving multiple @option{-t} options.
By default, nothing is omitted.

@item -T
@itemx --print-type
@opindex -T
@opindex --print-type
@cindex file system types, printing
Print each file system's type.  The types printed here are the same ones
you can include or exclude with @option{-t} and @option{-x}.  The particular
types printed are whatever is supported by the system.  Here are some of
the common names (this list is certainly not exhaustive):

@table @samp

@item nfs
@cindex @acronym{NFS} file system type
An @acronym{NFS} file system, i.e., one mounted over a network from another
machine.  This is the one type name which seems to be used uniformly by
all systems.

@item 4.2@r{, }ufs@r{, }efs@dots{}
@cindex Linux file system types
@cindex local file system types
@opindex 4.2 @r{file system type}
@opindex ufs @r{file system type}
@opindex efs @r{file system type}
A file system on a locally-mounted hard disk.  (The system might even
support more than one type here; Linux does.)

@item hsfs@r{, }cdfs
@cindex CD-ROM file system type
@cindex High Sierra file system
@opindex hsfs @r{file system type}
@opindex cdfs @r{file system type}
A file system on a CD-ROM drive.  HP-UX uses @samp{cdfs}, most other
systems use @samp{hsfs} (@samp{hs} for ``High Sierra'').

@item pcfs
@cindex PC file system
@cindex DOS file system
@cindex MS-DOS file system
@cindex diskette file system
@opindex pcfs
An MS-DOS file system, usually on a diskette.

@end table

@item -x @var{fstype}
@itemx --exclude-type=@var{fstype}
@opindex -x
@opindex --exclude-type
Limit the listing to file systems not of type @var{fstype}.
Multiple file system types can be eliminated by giving multiple
@option{-x} options.  By default, no file system types are omitted.

@item -v
Ignored; for compatibility with System V versions of @command{df}.

@end table

@exitstatus
Failure includes the case where no output is generated, so you can
inspect the exit status of a command like @samp{df -t ext3 -t reiserfs
@var{dir}} to test whether @var{dir} is on a file system of type
@samp{ext3} or @samp{reiserfs}.


@node du invocation
@section @command{du}: Estimate file space usage

@pindex du
@cindex file space usage
@cindex disk usage for files

@command{du} reports the amount of disk space used by the specified files
and for each subdirectory (of directory arguments).  Synopsis:

@example
du [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

With no arguments, @command{du} reports the disk space for the current
directory.  Normally the disk space is printed in units of
1024 bytes, but this can be overridden (@pxref{Block size}).
Non-integer quantities are rounded up to the next higher unit.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -a
@itemx --all
@opindex -a
@opindex --all
Show counts for all files, not just directories.

@itemx --apparent-size
@opindex --apparent-size
Print apparent sizes, rather than disk usage.  The apparent size of a
file is the number of bytes reported by @code{wc -c} on regular files,
or more generally, @code{ls -l --block-size=1} or @code{stat --format=%s}.
For example, a file containing the word @samp{zoo} with no newline would,
of course, have an apparent size of 3.  Such a small file may require
anywhere from 0 to 16 KiB or more of disk space, depending on
the type and configuration of the file system on which the file resides.
However, a sparse file created with this command:

@example
dd bs=1 seek=2GiB if=/dev/null of=big
@end example

@noindent
has an apparent size of 2 GiB, yet on most modern
systems, it actually uses almost no disk space.

@item -b
@itemx --bytes
@opindex -b
@opindex --bytes
Equivalent to @code{--apparent-size --block-size=1}.

@item -B @var{size}
@itemx --block-size=@var{size}
@opindex -B
@opindex --block-size
@cindex file sizes
Scale sizes by @var{size} before printing them (@pxref{Block size}).
For example, @option{-BG} prints sizes in units of 1,073,741,824 bytes.

@item -c
@itemx --total
@opindex -c
@opindex --total
@cindex grand total of disk space
Print a grand total of all arguments after all arguments have
been processed.  This can be used to find out the total disk usage of
a given set of files or directories.

@item -D
@itemx --dereference-args
@opindex -D
@opindex --dereference-args
Dereference symbolic links that are command line arguments.
Does not affect other symbolic links.  This is helpful for finding
out the disk usage of directories, such as @file{/usr/tmp}, which
are often symbolic links.

@itemx --files0-from=@var{FILE}
@opindex --files0-from=@var{FILE}
@cindex including files from @command{du}
Rather than processing files named on the command line, process those
named in file @var{FILE}; each name is terminated by a null byte.
This is useful with the @option{--total} (@option{-c}) option when
the list of file names is so long that it may exceed a command line
length limitation.
In such cases, running @command{du} via @command{xargs} is undesirable
because it splits the list into pieces and makes @command{du} print a
total for each sublist rather than for the entire list.
One way to produce a list of null-byte-terminated file names is with @sc{gnu}
@command{find}, using its @option{-print0} predicate.
Do not specify any @var{FILE} on the command line when using this option.

@optHumanReadable

@item -H
@opindex -H
Currently, @option{-H} is the same as @option{--si},
except that @option{-H} evokes a warning.
This option will be changed to be equivalent to
@option{--dereference-args} (@option{-D}).

@item -k
@opindex -k
@cindex kibibytes for file sizes
Print sizes in 1024-byte blocks, overriding the default block size
(@pxref{Block size}).
This option is equivalent to @option{--block-size=1K}.

@item -l
@itemx --count-links
@opindex -l
@opindex --count-links
@cindex hard links, counting in @command{du}
Count the size of all files, even if they have appeared already (as a
hard link).

@item -L
@itemx --dereference
@opindex -L
@opindex --dereference
@cindex symbolic links, dereferencing in @command{du}
Dereference symbolic links (show the disk space used by the file
or directory that the link points to instead of the space used by
the link).

@item -m
@opindex -m
@cindex mebibytes for file sizes
Print sizes in 1,048,576-byte blocks, overriding the default block size
(@pxref{Block size}).
This option is equivalent to @option{--block-size=1M}.

@item -P
@itemx --no-dereference
@opindex -P
@opindex --no-dereference
@cindex symbolic links, dereferencing in @command{du}
For each symbolic links encountered by @command{du},
consider the disk space used by the symbolic link.

@item --max-depth=@var{DEPTH}
@opindex --max-depth=@var{DEPTH}
@cindex limiting output of @command{du}
Show the total for each directory (and file if --all) that is at
most MAX_DEPTH levels down from the root of the hierarchy.  The root
is at level 0, so @code{du --max-depth=0} is equivalent to @code{du -s}.

@item -0
@opindex -0
@itemx --null
@opindex --null
@cindex output null-byte-terminated lines
Output a null byte at the end of each line, rather than a newline.
This option enables other programs to parse the output of @command{du}
even when that output would contain file names with embedded newlines.

@itemx --si
@opindex --si
@cindex SI output
Append an SI-style abbreviation to each size, such as @samp{MB} for
megabytes.  Powers of 1000 are used, not 1024; @samp{MB} stands for
1,000,000 bytes.  Use the @option{-h} or @option{--human-readable} option if
you prefer powers of 1024.

@item -s
@itemx --summarize
@opindex -s
@opindex --summarize
Display only a total for each argument.

@item -S
@itemx --separate-dirs
@opindex -S
@opindex --separate-dirs
Report the size of each directory separately, not including the sizes
of subdirectories.

@itemx --time
@opindex --time
@cindex last modified dates, displaying in @command{du}
Show time of the most recent modification of any file in the directory,
or any of its subdirectories.

@itemx --time=ctime
@itemx --time=status
@itemx --time=use
@opindex --time
@opindex ctime@r{, show the most recent}
@opindex status time@r{, show the most recent}
@opindex use time@r{, show the most recent}
Show the most recent status change time (the @samp{ctime} in the inode) of
any file in the directory, instead of the modification time.

@itemx --time=atime
@itemx --time=access
@opindex --time
@opindex atime@r{, show the most recent}
@opindex access time@r{, show the most recent}
Show the most recent access time (the @samp{atime} in the inode) of
any file in the directory, instead of the modification time.

@item --time-style=@var{style}
@opindex --time-style
@cindex time style
List timestamps in style @var{style}.  This option has an effect only if
the @option{--time} option is also specified.  The @var{style} should
be one of the following:

@table @samp
@item +@var{format}
@vindex LC_TIME
List timestamps using @var{format}, where @var{format} is interpreted
like the format argument of @command{date} (@pxref{date invocation}).
For example, @option{--time-style="+%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S"} causes
@command{du} to list timestamps like @samp{2002-03-30 23:45:56}.  As
with @command{date}, @var{format}'s interpretation is affected by the
@env{LC_TIME} locale category.

@item full-iso
List timestamps in full using @acronym{ISO} 8601 date, time, and time zone
format with nanosecond precision, e.g., @samp{2002-03-30
23:45:56.477817180 -0700}.  This style is equivalent to
@samp{+%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S.%N %z}.

@item long-iso
List @acronym{ISO} 8601 date and time in minutes, e.g.,
@samp{2002-03-30 23:45}.  These timestamps are shorter than
@samp{full-iso} timestamps, and are usually good enough for everyday
work.  This style is equivalent to @samp{+%Y-%m-%d %H:%M}.

@item iso
List @acronym{ISO} 8601 dates for timestamps, e.g., @samp{2002-03-30}.
This style is equivalent to @samp{+%Y-%m-%d}.
@end table

@vindex TIME_STYLE
You can specify the default value of the @option{--time-style} option
with the environment variable @env{TIME_STYLE}; if @env{TIME_STYLE} is not set
the default style is @samp{long-iso}.  For compatibility with @command{ls},
if @env{TIME_STYLE} begins with @samp{+} and contains a newline,
the newline and any later characters are ignored; if @env{TIME_STYLE}
begins with @samp{posix-} the @samp{posix-} is ignored; and if
@env{TIME_STYLE} is @samp{locale} it is ignored.

@item -x
@itemx --one-file-system
@opindex -x
@opindex --one-file-system
@cindex one file system, restricting @command{du} to
Skip directories that are on different file systems from the one that
the argument being processed is on.

@item --exclude=@var{PATTERN}
@opindex --exclude=@var{PATTERN}
@cindex excluding files from @command{du}
When recursing, skip subdirectories or files matching @var{PATTERN}.
For example, @code{du --exclude='*.o'} excludes files whose names
end in @samp{.o}.

@item -X @var{FILE}
@itemx --exclude-from=@var{FILE}
@opindex -X @var{FILE}
@opindex --exclude-from=@var{FILE}
@cindex excluding files from @command{du}
Like @option{--exclude}, except take the patterns to exclude from @var{FILE},
one per line.  If @var{FILE} is @samp{-}, take the patterns from standard
input.

@end table

@cindex NFS mounts from BSD to HP-UX
On BSD systems, @command{du} reports sizes that are half the correct
values for files that are NFS-mounted from HP-UX systems.  On HP-UX
systems, it reports sizes that are twice the correct values for
files that are NFS-mounted from BSD systems.  This is due to a flaw
in HP-UX; it also affects the HP-UX @command{du} program.

@exitstatus


@node stat invocation
@section @command{stat}: Report file or file system status

@pindex stat
@cindex file status
@cindex file system status

@command{stat} displays information about the specified file(s).  Synopsis:

@example
stat [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

With no option, @command{stat} reports all information about the given files.
But it also can be used to report the information of the file systems the
given files are located on.  If the files are links, @command{stat} can
also give information about the files the links point to.


@table @samp

@item -L
@itemx --dereference
@opindex -L
@opindex --dereference
@cindex symbolic links, dereferencing in @command{stat}
Change how @command{stat} treats symbolic links.
With this option, @command{stat} acts on the file referenced
by each symbolic link argument.
Without it, @command{stat} acts on any symbolic link argument directly.

@item -f
@itemx --file-system
@opindex -f
@opindex --file-system
@cindex file systems
Report information about the file systems where the given files are located
instead of information about the files themselves.

@item -c
@itemx --format=@var{format}
@opindex -c
@opindex --format=@var{format}
@cindex output format
Use @var{format} rather than the default format.
@var{format} is automatically newline-terminated, so
running a command like the following with two or more @var{file}
operands produces a line of output for each operand:
@example
$ stat --format=%d:%i / /usr
2050:2
2057:2
@end example

@itemx --printf=@var{format}
@opindex --printf=@var{format}
@cindex output format
Use @var{format} rather than the default format.
Like @option{--format}, but interpret backslash escapes,
and do not output a mandatory trailing newline.
If you want a newline, include @samp{\n} in the @var{format}.
Here's how you would use @option{--printf} to print the device
and inode numbers of @file{/} and @file{/usr}:
@example
$ stat --printf='%d:%i\n' / /usr
2050:2
2057:2
@end example

@item -t
@itemx --terse
@opindex -t
@opindex --terse
@cindex terse output
Print the information in terse form, suitable for parsing by other programs.

The valid format sequences for files are:

@itemize @bullet
@item %a - Access rights in octal
@item %A - Access rights in human readable form
@item %b - Number of blocks allocated (see @samp{%B})
@item %B - The size in bytes of each block reported by @samp{%b}
@item %d - Device number in decimal
@item %D - Device number in hex
@item %f - Raw mode in hex
@item %F - File type
@item %g - Group ID of owner
@item %G - Group name of owner
@item %h - Number of hard links
@item %i - Inode number
@item %n - File name
@item %N - Quoted file name with dereference if symbolic link
@item %o - I/O block size
@item %s - Total size, in bytes
@item %t - Major device type in hex
@item %T - Minor device type in hex
@item %u - User ID of owner
@item %U - User name of owner
@item %x - Time of last access
@item %X - Time of last access as seconds since Epoch
@item %y - Time of last modification
@item %Y - Time of last modification as seconds since Epoch
@item %z - Time of last change
@item %Z - Time of last change as seconds since Epoch
@end itemize

The valid format sequences for file systems are:

@itemize @bullet
@item %a - Free blocks available to non-super-user
@item %b - Total data blocks in file system
@item %c - Total file nodes in file system
@item %d - Free file nodes in file system
@item %f - Free blocks in file system
@item %i - File System ID in hex
@item %l - Maximum length of file names
@item %n - File name
@item %s - Block size (for faster transfers)
@item %S - Fundamental block size (for block counts)
@item %t - Type in hex
@item %T - Type in human readable form
@end itemize

@vindex TZ
Time stamps are listed according to the time zone rules specified by
the @env{TZ} environment variable, or by the system default rules if
@env{TZ} is not set.  @xref{TZ Variable,, Specifying the Time Zone
with @env{TZ}, libc, The GNU C Library}.
@end table

@exitstatus


@node sync invocation
@section @command{sync}: Synchronize data on disk with memory

@pindex sync
@cindex synchronize disk and memory

@cindex superblock, writing
@cindex inodes, written buffered
@command{sync} writes any data buffered in memory out to disk.  This can
include (but is not limited to) modified superblocks, modified inodes,
and delayed reads and writes.  This must be implemented by the kernel;
The @command{sync} program does nothing but exercise the @code{sync} system
call.

@cindex crashes and corruption
The kernel keeps data in memory to avoid doing (relatively slow) disk
reads and writes.  This improves performance, but if the computer
crashes, data may be lost or the file system corrupted as a
result.  The @command{sync} command ensures everything in memory
is written to disk.

Any arguments are ignored, except for a lone @option{--help} or
@option{--version} (@pxref{Common options}).

@exitstatus


@node Printing text
@chapter Printing text

@cindex printing text, commands for
@cindex commands for printing text

This section describes commands that display text strings.

@menu
* echo invocation::             Print a line of text.
* printf invocation::           Format and print data.
* yes invocation::              Print a string until interrupted.
@end menu


@node echo invocation
@section @command{echo}: Print a line of text

@pindex echo
@cindex displaying text
@cindex printing text
@cindex text, displaying
@cindex arbitrary text, displaying

@command{echo} writes each given @var{string} to standard output, with a
space between each and a newline after the last one.  Synopsis:

@example
echo [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{string}]@dots{}
@end example

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.
Options must precede operands, and the normally-special argument
@samp{--} has no special meaning and is treated like any other
@var{string}.

@table @samp
@item -n
@opindex -n
Do not output the trailing newline.

@item -e
@opindex -e
@cindex backslash escapes
Enable interpretation of the following backslash-escaped characters in
each @var{string}:

@table @samp
@item \a
alert (bell)
@item \b
backspace
@item \c
suppress trailing newline
@item \f
form feed
@item \n
new line
@item \r
carriage return
@item \t
horizontal tab
@item \v
vertical tab
@item \\
backslash
@item \0@var{nnn}
the eight-bit value that is the octal number @var{nnn}
(zero to three octal digits)
@item \@var{nnn}
the eight-bit value that is the octal number @var{nnn}
(one to three octal digits)
@item \x@var{hh}
the eight-bit value that is the hexadecimal number @var{hh}
(one or two hexadecimal digits)
@end table

@item -E
@opindex -E
@cindex backslash escapes
Disable interpretation of backslash escapes in each @var{string}.
This is the default.  If @option{-e} and @option{-E} are both
specified, the last one given takes effect.

@end table

@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
If the @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment variable is set, then when
@command{echo}'s first argument is not @option{-n} it outputs
option-like arguments instead of treating them as options.  For
example, @code{echo -ne hello} outputs @samp{-ne hello} instead of
plain @samp{hello}.

@acronym{POSIX} does not require support for any options, and says
that the behavior of @command{echo} is implementation-defined if any
@var{string} contains a backslash or if the first argument is
@option{-n}.  Portable programs can use the @command{printf} command
if they need to omit trailing newlines or output control characters or
backslashes.  @xref{printf invocation}.

@exitstatus


@node printf invocation
@section @command{printf}: Format and print data

@pindex printf
@command{printf} does formatted printing of text.  Synopsis:

@example
printf @var{format} [@var{argument}]@dots{}
@end example

@command{printf} prints the @var{format} string, interpreting @samp{%}
directives and @samp{\} escapes to format numeric and string arguments
in a way that is mostly similar to the C @samp{printf} function.  The
differences are as follows:

@itemize @bullet

@item
The @var{format} argument is reused as necessary to convert all the
given @var{argument}s.  For example, the command @samp{printf %s a b}
outputs @samp{ab}.

@item
Missing @var{argument}s are treated as null strings or as zeros,
depending on whether the context expects a string or a number.  For
example, the command @samp{printf %sx%d} prints @samp{x0}.

@item
@kindex \c
An additional escape, @samp{\c}, causes @command{printf} to produce no
further output.  For example, the command @samp{printf 'A%sC\cD%sF' B
E} prints @samp{ABC}.

@item
The hexadecimal escape sequence @samp{\x@var{hh}} has at most two
digits, as opposed to C where it can have an unlimited number of
digits.  For example, the command @samp{printf '\x07e'} prints two
bytes, whereas the C statement @samp{printf ("\x07e")} prints just
one.

@item
@kindex %b
@command{printf} has an additional directive, @samp{%b}, which prints its
argument string with @samp{\} escapes interpreted in the same way as in
the @var{format} string, except that octal escapes are of the form
@samp{\0@var{ooo}} where @var{ooo} is 0 to 3 octal digits.
If a precision is also given, it limits the number of bytes printed
from the converted string.

@item
Numeric arguments must be single C constants, possibly with leading
@samp{+} or @samp{-}.  For example, @samp{printf %.4d -3} outputs
@samp{-0003}.

@item
@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
If the leading character of a numeric argument is @samp{"} or @samp{'}
then its value is the numeric value of the immediately following
character.  Any remaining characters are silently ignored if the
@env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment variable is set; otherwise, a
warning is printed.  For example, @samp{printf "%d" "'a"} outputs
@samp{97} on hosts that use the @acronym{ASCII} character set, since
@samp{a} has the numeric value 97 in @acronym{ASCII}.

@end itemize

@vindex LC_NUMERIC
A floating-point argument must use a period before any fractional
digits, but is printed according to the @env{LC_NUMERIC} category of the
current locale.  For example, in a locale whose radix character is a
comma, the command @samp{printf %g 3.14} outputs @samp{3,14} whereas
the command @samp{printf %g 3,14} is an error.

@kindex \@var{ooo}
@kindex \x@var{hh}
@command{printf} interprets @samp{\@var{ooo}} in @var{format} as an octal number
(if @var{ooo} is 1 to 3 octal digits) specifying a character to print,
and @samp{\x@var{hh}} as a hexadecimal number (if @var{hh} is 1 to 2 hex
digits) specifying a character to print.

@kindex \uhhhh
@kindex \Uhhhhhhhh
@cindex Unicode
@cindex ISO/IEC 10646
@vindex LC_CTYPE
@command{printf} interprets two character syntaxes introduced in
@acronym{ISO} C 99:
@samp{\u} for 16-bit Unicode (@acronym{ISO}/@acronym{IEC} 10646)
characters, specified as
four hexadecimal digits @var{hhhh}, and @samp{\U} for 32-bit Unicode
characters, specified as eight hexadecimal digits @var{hhhhhhhh}.
@command{printf} outputs the Unicode characters
according to the @env{LC_CTYPE} locale.

The processing of @samp{\u} and @samp{\U} requires a full-featured
@code{iconv} facility.  It is activated on systems with glibc 2.2 (or newer),
or when @code{libiconv} is installed prior to this package.  Otherwise
@samp{\u} and @samp{\U} will print as-is.

The only options are a lone @option{--help} or
@option{--version}.  @xref{Common options}.
Options must precede operands.

The Unicode character syntaxes are useful for writing strings in a locale
independent way.  For example, a string containing the Euro currency symbol

@example
$ /usr/local/bin/printf '\u20AC 14.95'
@end example

@noindent
will be output correctly in all locales supporting the Euro symbol
(@acronym{ISO}-8859-15, UTF-8, and others).  Similarly, a Chinese string

@example
$ /usr/local/bin/printf '\u4e2d\u6587'
@end example

@noindent
will be output correctly in all Chinese locales (GB2312, BIG5, UTF-8, etc).

Note that in these examples, the full name of @command{printf} has been
given, to distinguish it from the GNU @code{bash} built-in function
@command{printf}.

For larger strings, you don't need to look up the hexadecimal code
values of each character one by one.  @acronym{ASCII} characters mixed with \u
escape sequences is also known as the JAVA source file encoding.  You can
use GNU recode 3.5c (or newer) to convert strings to this encoding.  Here
is how to convert a piece of text into a shell script which will output
this text in a locale-independent way:

@smallexample
$ LC_CTYPE=zh_CN.big5 /usr/local/bin/printf \
    '\u4e2d\u6587\n' > sample.txt
$ recode BIG5..JAVA < sample.txt \
    | sed -e "s|^|/usr/local/bin/printf '|" -e "s|$|\\\\n'|" \
    > sample.sh
@end smallexample

@exitstatus


@node yes invocation
@section @command{yes}: Print a string until interrupted

@pindex yes
@cindex repeated output of a string

@command{yes} prints the command line arguments, separated by spaces and
followed by a newline, forever until it is killed.  If no arguments are
given, it prints @samp{y} followed by a newline forever until killed.

Upon a write error, @command{yes} exits with status @samp{1}.

The only options are a lone @option{--help} or @option{--version}.
To output an argument that begins with
@samp{-}, precede it with @option{--}, e.g., @samp{yes -- --help}.
@xref{Common options}.


@node Conditions
@chapter Conditions

@cindex conditions
@cindex commands for exit status
@cindex exit status commands

This section describes commands that are primarily useful for their exit
status, rather than their output.  Thus, they are often used as the
condition of shell @code{if} statements, or as the last command in a
pipeline.

@menu
* false invocation::            Do nothing, unsuccessfully.
* true invocation::             Do nothing, successfully.
* test invocation::             Check file types and compare values.
* expr invocation::             Evaluate expressions.
@end menu


@node false invocation
@section @command{false}: Do nothing, unsuccessfully

@pindex false
@cindex do nothing, unsuccessfully
@cindex failure exit status
@cindex exit status of @command{false}

@command{false} does nothing except return an exit status of 1, meaning
@dfn{failure}.  It can be used as a place holder in shell scripts
where an unsuccessful command is needed.
In most modern shells, @command{false} is a built-in command, so when
you use @samp{false} in a script, you're probably using the built-in
command, not the one documented here.

@command{false} honors the @option{--help} and @option{--version} options.

This version of @command{false} is implemented as a C program, and is thus
more secure and faster than a shell script implementation, and may safely
be used as a dummy shell for the purpose of disabling accounts.

Note that @command{false} (unlike all other programs documented herein)
exits unsuccessfully, even when invoked with
@option{--help} or @option{--version}.

Portable programs should not assume that the exit status of
@command{false} is 1, as it is greater than 1 on some
non-@acronym{GNU} hosts.


@node true invocation
@section @command{true}: Do nothing, successfully

@pindex true
@cindex do nothing, successfully
@cindex no-op
@cindex successful exit
@cindex exit status of @command{true}

@command{true} does nothing except return an exit status of 0, meaning
@dfn{success}.  It can be used as a place holder in shell scripts
where a successful command is needed, although the shell built-in
command @code{:} (colon) may do the same thing faster.
In most modern shells, @command{true} is a built-in command, so when
you use @samp{true} in a script, you're probably using the built-in
command, not the one documented here.

@command{true} honors the @option{--help} and @option{--version} options.

Note, however, that it is possible to cause @command{true}
to exit with nonzero status: with the @option{--help} or @option{--version}
option, and with standard
output already closed or redirected to a file that evokes an I/O error.
For example, using a Bourne-compatible shell:

@example
$ ./true --version >&-
./true: write error: Bad file number
$ ./true --version > /dev/full
./true: write error: No space left on device
@end example

This version of @command{true} is implemented as a C program, and is thus
more secure and faster than a shell script implementation, and may safely
be used as a dummy shell for the purpose of disabling accounts.

@node test invocation
@section @command{test}: Check file types and compare values

@pindex test
@cindex check file types
@cindex compare values
@cindex expression evaluation

@command{test} returns a status of 0 (true) or 1 (false) depending on the
evaluation of the conditional expression @var{expr}.  Each part of the
expression must be a separate argument.

@command{test} has file status checks, string operators, and numeric
comparison operators.

@command{test} has an alternate form that uses opening and closing
square brackets instead a leading @samp{test}.  For example, instead
of @samp{test -d /}, you can write @samp{[ -d / ]}.  The square
brackets must be separate arguments; for example, @samp{[-d /]} does
not have the desired effect.  Since @samp{test @var{expr}} and @samp{[
@var{expr} ]} have the same meaning, only the former form is discussed
below.

Synopses:

@example
test @var{expression}
test
[ @var{expression} ]
[ ]
[ @var{option}
@end example

@cindex conflicts with shell built-ins
@cindex built-in shell commands, conflicts with
Because most shells have a built-in @command{test} command, using an
unadorned @command{test} in a script or interactively may get you
different functionality than that described here.

If @var{expression} is omitted, @command{test} returns false.
If @var{expression} is a single argument,
@command{test} returns false if the argument is null and true otherwise.  The argument
can be any string, including strings like @samp{-d}, @samp{-1},
@samp{--}, @samp{--help}, and @samp{--version} that most other
programs would treat as options.  To get help and version information,
invoke the commands @samp{[ --help} and @samp{[ --version}, without
the usual closing brackets.  @xref{Common options}.

@cindex exit status of @command{test}
Exit status:

@display
0 if the expression is true,
1 if the expression is false,
2 if an error occurred.
@end display

@menu
* File type tests::             -[bcdfhLpSt]
* Access permission tests::     -[gkruwxOG]
* File characteristic tests::   -e -s -nt -ot -ef
* String tests::                -z -n = !=
* Numeric tests::               -eq -ne -lt -le -gt -ge
* Connectives for test::        ! -a -o
@end menu


@node File type tests
@subsection File type tests

@cindex file type tests

These options test for particular types of files.  (Everything's a file,
but not all files are the same!)

@table @samp

@item -b @var{file}
@opindex -b
@cindex block special check
True if @var{file} exists and is a block special device.

@item -c @var{file}
@opindex -c
@cindex character special check
True if @var{file} exists and is a character special device.

@item -d @var{file}
@opindex -d
@cindex directory check
True if @var{file} exists and is a directory.

@item -f @var{file}
@opindex -f
@cindex regular file check
True if @var{file} exists and is a regular file.

@item -h @var{file}
@itemx -L @var{file}
@opindex -L
@opindex -h
@cindex symbolic link check
True if @var{file} exists and is a symbolic link.
Unlike all other file-related tests, this test does not dereference
@var{file} if it is a symbolic link.

@item -p @var{file}
@opindex -p
@cindex named pipe check
True if @var{file} exists and is a named pipe.

@item -S @var{file}
@opindex -S
@cindex socket check
True if @var{file} exists and is a socket.

@item -t @var{fd}
@opindex -t
@cindex terminal check
True if @var{fd} is a file descriptor that is associated with a
terminal.

@end table


@node Access permission tests
@subsection Access permission tests

@cindex access permission tests
@cindex permission tests

These options test for particular access permissions.

@table @samp

@item -g @var{file}
@opindex -g
@cindex set-group-ID check
True if @var{file} exists and has its set-group-ID bit set.

@item -k @var{file}
@opindex -k
@cindex sticky bit check
True if @var{file} exists and has its @dfn{sticky} bit set.

@item -r @var{file}
@opindex -r
@cindex readable file check
True if @var{file} exists and read permission is granted.

@item -u @var{file}
@opindex -u
@cindex set-user-ID check
True if @var{file} exists and has its set-user-ID bit set.

@item -w @var{file}
@opindex -w
@cindex writable file check
True if @var{file} exists and write permission is granted.

@item -x @var{file}
@opindex -x
@cindex executable file check
True if @var{file} exists and execute permission is granted
(or search permission, if it is a directory).

@item -O @var{file}
@opindex -O
@cindex owned by effective user ID check
True if @var{file} exists and is owned by the current effective user ID.

@item -G @var{file}
@opindex -G
@cindex owned by effective group ID check
True if @var{file} exists and is owned by the current effective group ID.

@end table

@node File characteristic tests
@subsection File characteristic tests

@cindex file characteristic tests

These options test other file characteristics.

@table @samp

@item -e @var{file}
@opindex -e
@cindex existence-of-file check
True if @var{file} exists.

@item -s @var{file}
@opindex -s
@cindex nonempty file check
True if @var{file} exists and has a size greater than zero.

@item @var{file1} -nt @var{file2}
@opindex -nt
@cindex newer-than file check
True if @var{file1} is newer (according to modification date) than
@var{file2}, or if @var{file1} exists and @var{file2} does not.

@item @var{file1} -ot @var{file2}
@opindex -ot
@cindex older-than file check
True if @var{file1} is older (according to modification date) than
@var{file2}, or if @var{file2} exists and @var{file1} does not.

@item @var{file1} -ef @var{file2}
@opindex -ef
@cindex same file check
@cindex hard link check
True if @var{file1} and @var{file2} have the same device and inode
numbers, i.e., if they are hard links to each other.

@end table


@node String tests
@subsection String tests

@cindex string tests

These options test string characteristics.  You may need to quote
@var{string} arguments for the shell.  For example:

@example
test -n "$V"
@end example

The quotes here prevent the wrong arguments from being passed to
@command{test} if @samp{$V} is empty or contains special characters.

@table @samp

@item -z @var{string}
@opindex -z
@cindex zero-length string check
True if the length of @var{string} is zero.

@item -n @var{string}
@itemx @var{string}
@opindex -n
@cindex nonzero-length string check
True if the length of @var{string} is nonzero.

@item @var{string1} = @var{string2}
@opindex =
@cindex equal string check
True if the strings are equal.

@item @var{string1} != @var{string2}
@opindex !=
@cindex not-equal string check
True if the strings are not equal.

@end table


@node Numeric tests
@subsection Numeric tests

@cindex numeric tests
@cindex arithmetic tests

Numeric relationals.  The arguments must be entirely numeric (possibly
negative), or the special expression @w{@code{-l @var{string}}}, which
evaluates to the length of @var{string}.

@table @samp

@item @var{arg1} -eq @var{arg2}
@itemx @var{arg1} -ne @var{arg2}
@itemx @var{arg1} -lt @var{arg2}
@itemx @var{arg1} -le @var{arg2}
@itemx @var{arg1} -gt @var{arg2}
@itemx @var{arg1} -ge @var{arg2}
@opindex -eq
@opindex -ne
@opindex -lt
@opindex -le
@opindex -gt
@opindex -ge
These arithmetic binary operators return true if @var{arg1} is equal,
not-equal, less-than, less-than-or-equal, greater-than, or
greater-than-or-equal than @var{arg2}, respectively.

@end table

For example:

@example
test -1 -gt -2 && echo yes
@result{} yes
test -l abc -gt 1 && echo yes
@result{} yes
test 0x100 -eq 1
@error{} test: integer expression expected before -eq
@end example


@node Connectives for test
@subsection Connectives for @command{test}

@cindex logical connectives
@cindex connectives, logical

The usual logical connectives.

@table @samp

@item ! @var{expr}
@opindex !
True if @var{expr} is false.

@item @var{expr1} -a @var{expr2}
@opindex -a
@cindex logical and operator
@cindex and operator
True if both @var{expr1} and @var{expr2} are true.

@item @var{expr1} -o @var{expr2}
@opindex -o
@cindex logical or operator
@cindex or operator
True if either @var{expr1} or @var{expr2} is true.

@end table


@node expr invocation
@section @command{expr}: Evaluate expressions

@pindex expr
@cindex expression evaluation
@cindex evaluation of expressions

@command{expr} evaluates an expression and writes the result on standard
output.  Each token of the expression must be a separate argument.

Operands are either integers or strings.  Integers consist of one or
more decimal digits, with an optional leading @samp{-}.
@command{expr} converts
anything appearing in an operand position to an integer or a string
depending on the operation being applied to it.

Strings are not quoted for @command{expr} itself, though you may need to
quote them to protect characters with special meaning to the shell,
e.g., spaces.  However, regardless of whether it is quoted, a string
operand should not be a parenthesis or any of @command{expr}'s
operators like @code{+}, so you cannot safely pass an arbitrary string
@code{$str} to expr merely by quoting it to the shell.  One way to
work around this is to use the @sc{gnu} extension @code{+},
(e.g., @code{+ "$str" = foo}); a more portable way is to use
@code{@w{" $str"}} and to adjust the rest of the expression to take
the leading space into account (e.g., @code{@w{" $str" = " foo"}}).

You should not pass a negative integer or a string with leading
@samp{-} as @command{expr}'s first argument, as it might be
misinterpreted as an option; this can be avoided by parenthesization.
Also, portable scripts should not use a string operand that happens to
take the form of an integer; this can be worked around by inserting
leading spaces as mentioned above.

@cindex parentheses for grouping
Operators may be given as infix symbols or prefix keywords.  Parentheses
may be used for grouping in the usual manner.  You must quote
parentheses and many operators to avoid the shell evaluating them,
however.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.  Options must precede operands.

@cindex exit status of @command{expr}
Exit status:

@display
0 if the expression is neither null nor 0,
1 if the expression is null or 0,
2 if the expression is invalid,
3 if an internal error occurred (e.g., arithmetic overflow).
@end display

@menu
* String expressions::          + : match substr index length
* Numeric expressions::         + - * / %
* Relations for expr::          | & < <= = == != >= >
* Examples of expr::            Examples.
@end menu


@node String expressions
@subsection String expressions

@cindex string expressions
@cindex expressions, string

@command{expr} supports pattern matching and other string operators.  These
have lower precedence than both the numeric and relational operators (in
the next sections).

@table @samp

@item @var{string} : @var{regex}
@cindex pattern matching
@cindex regular expression matching
@cindex matching patterns
Perform pattern matching.  The arguments are converted to strings and the
second is considered to be a (basic, a la GNU @code{grep}) regular
expression, with a @code{^} implicitly prepended.  The first argument is
then matched against this regular expression.

If the match succeeds and @var{regex} uses @samp{\(} and @samp{\)}, the
@code{:} expression returns the part of @var{string} that matched the
subexpression; otherwise, it returns the number of characters matched.

If the match fails, the @code{:} operator returns the null string if
@samp{\(} and @samp{\)} are used in @var{regex}, otherwise 0.

@kindex \( @r{regexp operator}
Only the first @samp{\( @dots{} \)} pair is relevant to the return
value; additional pairs are meaningful only for grouping the regular
expression operators.

@kindex \+ @r{regexp operator}
@kindex \? @r{regexp operator}
@kindex \| @r{regexp operator}
In the regular expression, @code{\+}, @code{\?}, and @code{\|} are
operators which respectively match one or more, zero or one, or separate
alternatives.  SunOS and other @command{expr}'s treat these as regular
characters.  (@acronym{POSIX} allows either behavior.)
@xref{Top, , Regular Expression Library, regex, Regex}, for details of
regular expression syntax.  Some examples are in @ref{Examples of expr}.

@item match @var{string} @var{regex}
@findex match
An alternative way to do pattern matching.  This is the same as
@w{@samp{@var{string} : @var{regex}}}.

@item substr @var{string} @var{position} @var{length}
@findex substr
Returns the substring of @var{string} beginning at @var{position}
with length at most @var{length}.  If either @var{position} or
@var{length} is negative, zero, or non-numeric, returns the null string.

@item index @var{string} @var{charset}
@findex index
Returns the first position in @var{string} where the first character in
@var{charset} was found.  If no character in @var{charset} is found in
@var{string}, return 0.

@item length @var{string}
@findex length
Returns the length of @var{string}.

@item + @var{token}
@kindex +
Interpret @var{token} as a string, even if it is a keyword like @var{match}
or an operator like @code{/}.
This makes it possible to test @code{expr length + "$x"} or
@code{expr + "$x" : '.*/\(.\)'} and have it do the right thing even if
the value of @var{$x} happens to be (for example) @code{/} or @code{index}.
This operator is a @acronym{GNU} extension.  Portable shell scripts should use
@code{@w{" $token"} : @w{' \(.*\)'}} instead of @code{+ "$token"}.

@end table

To make @command{expr} interpret keywords as strings, you must use the
@code{quote} operator.


@node Numeric expressions
@subsection Numeric expressions

@cindex numeric expressions
@cindex expressions, numeric

@command{expr} supports the usual numeric operators, in order of increasing
precedence.  The string operators (previous section) have lower precedence,
the connectives (next section) have higher.

@table @samp

@item + -
@kindex +
@kindex -
@cindex addition
@cindex subtraction
Addition and subtraction.  Both arguments are converted to integers;
an error occurs if this cannot be done.

@item * / %
@kindex *
@kindex /
@kindex %
@cindex multiplication
@cindex division
@cindex remainder
Multiplication, division, remainder.  Both arguments are converted to
integers; an error occurs if this cannot be done.

@end table


@node Relations for expr
@subsection Relations for @command{expr}

@cindex connectives, logical
@cindex logical connectives
@cindex relations, numeric or string

@command{expr} supports the usual logical connectives and relations.  These
are higher precedence than either the string or numeric operators
(previous sections).  Here is the list, lowest-precedence operator first.

@table @samp

@item |
@kindex |
@cindex logical or operator
@cindex or operator
Returns its first argument if that is neither null nor zero, otherwise
its second argument if it is neither null nor zero, otherwise 0.  It
does not evaluate its second argument if its first argument is neither
null nor zero.

@item &
@kindex &
@cindex logical and operator
@cindex and operator
Return its first argument if neither argument is null or zero, otherwise
0.  It does not evaluate its second argument if its first argument is
null or zero.

@item < <= = == != >= >
@kindex <
@kindex <=
@kindex =
@kindex ==
@kindex >
@kindex >=
@cindex comparison operators
@vindex LC_COLLATE
Compare the arguments and return 1 if the relation is true, 0 otherwise.
@code{==} is a synonym for @code{=}.  @command{expr} first tries to convert
both arguments to integers and do a numeric comparison; if either
conversion fails, it does a lexicographic comparison using the character
collating sequence specified by the @env{LC_COLLATE} locale.

@end table


@node Examples of expr
@subsection Examples of using @command{expr}

@cindex examples of @command{expr}
Here are a few examples, including quoting for shell metacharacters.

To add 1 to the shell variable @code{foo}, in Bourne-compatible shells:

@example
foo=`expr $foo + 1`
@end example

To print the non-directory part of the file name stored in
@code{$fname}, which need not contain a @code{/}:

@example
expr $fname : '.*/\(.*\)' '|' $fname
@end example

An example showing that @code{\+} is an operator:

@example
expr aaa : 'a\+'
@result{} 3
@end example

@example
expr abc : 'a\(.\)c'
@result{} b
expr index abcdef cz
@result{} 3
expr index index a
@error{} expr: syntax error
expr index quote index a
@result{} 0
@end example


@node Redirection
@chapter Redirection

@cindex redirection
@cindex commands for redirection

Unix shells commonly provide several forms of @dfn{redirection}---ways
to change the input source or output destination of a command.  But one
useful redirection is performed by a separate command, not by the shell;
it's described here.

@menu
* tee invocation::              Redirect output to multiple files.
@end menu


@node tee invocation
@section @command{tee}: Redirect output to multiple files

@pindex tee
@cindex pipe fitting
@cindex destinations, multiple output
@cindex read from stdin and write to stdout and files

The @command{tee} command copies standard input to standard output and also
to any files given as arguments.  This is useful when you want not only
to send some data down a pipe, but also to save a copy.  Synopsis:

@example
tee [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

If a file being written to does not already exist, it is created.  If a
file being written to already exists, the data it previously contained
is overwritten unless the @option{-a} option is used.

A @var{file} of @samp{-} causes @command{tee} to send another copy of
input to standard output, but this is typically not that useful as the
copies are interleaved.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp
@item -a
@itemx --append
@opindex -a
@opindex --append
Append standard input to the given files rather than overwriting
them.

@item -i
@itemx --ignore-interrupts
@opindex -i
@opindex --ignore-interrupts
Ignore interrupt signals.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node File name manipulation
@chapter File name manipulation

@cindex file name manipulation
@cindex manipulation of file names
@cindex commands for file name manipulation

This section describes commands that manipulate file names.

@menu
* basename invocation::         Strip directory and suffix from a file name.
* dirname invocation::          Strip non-directory suffix from a file name.
* pathchk invocation::          Check file name portability.
@end menu


@node basename invocation
@section @command{basename}: Strip directory and suffix from a file name

@pindex basename
@cindex strip directory and suffix from file names
@cindex directory, stripping from file names
@cindex suffix, stripping from file names
@cindex file names, stripping directory and suffix
@cindex leading directory components, stripping

@command{basename} removes any leading directory components from
@var{name}.  Synopsis:

@example
basename @var{name} [@var{suffix}]
@end example

If @var{suffix} is specified and is identical to the end of @var{name},
it is removed from @var{name} as well.  Note that since trailing slashes
are removed prior to suffix matching, @var{suffix} will do nothing if it
contains slashes.  @command{basename} prints the result on standard
output.

@c This test is used both here and in the section on dirname.
@macro basenameAndDirname
Together, @command{basename} and @command{dirname} are designed such
that if @samp{ls "$name"} succeeds, then the command sequence @samp{cd
"$(dirname "$name")"; ls "$(basename "$name")"} will, too.  This works
for everything except file names containing a trailing newline.
@end macro
@basenameAndDirname

@acronym{POSIX} allows the implementation to define the results if
@var{name} is empty or @samp{//}.  In the former case, @acronym{GNU}
@command{basename} returns the empty string.  In the latter case, the
result is @samp{//} on platforms where @var{//} is distinct from
@var{/}, and @samp{/} on platforms where there is no difference.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.  Options must precede operands.

@exitstatus

Examples:

@smallexample
# Output "sort".
basename /usr/bin/sort

# Output "stdio".
basename include/stdio.h .h
@end smallexample


@node dirname invocation
@section @command{dirname}: Strip non-directory suffix from a file name

@pindex dirname
@cindex directory components, printing
@cindex stripping non-directory suffix
@cindex non-directory suffix, stripping

@command{dirname} prints all but the final slash-delimited component of
a string (presumably a file name).  Synopsis:

@example
dirname @var{name}
@end example

If @var{name} is a single component, @command{dirname} prints @samp{.}
(meaning the current directory).

@basenameAndDirname

@acronym{POSIX} allows the implementation to define the results if
@var{name} is @samp{//}.  With @acronym{GNU} @command{dirname}, the
result is @samp{//} on platforms where @var{//} is distinct from
@var{/}, and @samp{/} on platforms where there is no difference.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.

@exitstatus

Examples:

@smallexample
# Output "/usr/bin".
dirname /usr/bin/sort

# Output ".".
dirname stdio.h
@end smallexample


@node pathchk invocation
@section @command{pathchk}: Check file name portability

@pindex pathchk
@cindex file names, checking validity and portability
@cindex valid file names, checking for
@cindex portable file names, checking for

@command{pathchk} checks portability of file names.  Synopsis:

@example
pathchk [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{name}@dots{}
@end example

For each @var{name}, @command{pathchk} prints a message if any of
these conditions is true:

@enumerate
@item
One of the existing directories in @var{name} does not have search
(execute) permission,
@item
The length of @var{name} is larger than the maximum supported by the
operating system.
@item
The length of one component of @var{name} is longer than
its file system's maximum.
@end enumerate

A nonexistent @var{name} is not an error, so long a file with that
name could be created under the above conditions.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.
Options must precede operands.

@table @samp

@item -p
@opindex -p
Instead of performing checks based on the underlying file system,
print a message if any of these conditions is true:

@enumerate
@item
A file name is empty.

@item
The length of a file name or one of its components exceeds the
@acronym{POSIX} minimum limits for portability.

@item
A file name contains a character outside the portable file name
character set, namely, the ASCII letters and digits, @samp{-},
@samp{.}, @samp{/}, and @samp{_}.
@end enumerate

@item -P
@opindex -P
Print a message if a file name is empty, or if it contains a component
that begins with @samp{-}.

@item --portability
@opindex --portability
Print a message if a file name is not portable to all @acronym{POSIX}
hosts.  This option is equivalent to @samp{-p -P}.

@end table

@cindex exit status of @command{pathchk}
Exit status:

@display
0 if all specified file names passed all checks,
1 otherwise.
@end display


@node Working context
@chapter Working context

@cindex working context
@cindex commands for printing the working context

This section describes commands that display or alter the context in
which you are working: the current directory, the terminal settings, and
so forth.  See also the user-related commands in the next section.

@menu
* pwd invocation::              Print working directory.
* stty invocation::             Print or change terminal characteristics.
* printenv invocation::         Print environment variables.
* tty invocation::              Print file name of terminal on standard input.
@end menu


@node pwd invocation
@section @command{pwd}: Print working directory

@pindex pwd
@cindex print name of current directory
@cindex current working directory, printing
@cindex working directory, printing

@cindex symbolic links and @command{pwd}
@command{pwd} prints the fully resolved name of the current directory.
That is, all components of the printed name will be actual directory
names---none will be symbolic links.

@cindex conflicts with shell built-ins
@cindex built-in shell commands, conflicts with
Because most shells have a built-in @command{pwd} command, using an
unadorned @command{pwd} in a script or interactively may get you
different functionality than that described here.

The only options are a lone @option{--help} or
@option{--version}.  @xref{Common options}.

@exitstatus


@node stty invocation
@section @command{stty}: Print or change terminal characteristics

@pindex stty
@cindex change or print terminal settings
@cindex terminal settings
@cindex line settings of terminal

@command{stty} prints or changes terminal characteristics, such as baud rate.
Synopses:

@example
stty [@var{option}] [@var{setting}]@dots{}
stty [@var{option}]
@end example

If given no line settings, @command{stty} prints the baud rate, line
discipline number (on systems that support it), and line settings
that have been changed from the values set by @samp{stty sane}.
By default, mode reading and setting are performed on the tty line
connected to standard input, although this can be modified by the
@option{--file} option.

@command{stty} accepts many non-option arguments that change aspects of
the terminal line operation, as described below.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp
@item -a
@itemx --all
@opindex -a
@opindex --all
Print all current settings in human-readable form.  This option may not
be used in combination with any line settings.

@item -F @var{device}
@itemx --file=@var{device}
@opindex -F
@opindex --file
Set the line opened by the file name specified in @var{device} instead of
the tty line connected to standard input.  This option is necessary
because opening a @acronym{POSIX} tty requires use of the @code{O_NONDELAY} flag to
prevent a @acronym{POSIX} tty from blocking until the carrier detect line is high if
the @code{clocal} flag is not set.  Hence, it is not always possible
to allow the shell to open the device in the traditional manner.

@item -g
@itemx --save
@opindex -g
@opindex --save
@cindex machine-readable @command{stty} output
Print all current settings in a form that can be used as an argument to
another @command{stty} command to restore the current settings.  This option
may not be used in combination with any line settings.

@end table

Many settings can be turned off by preceding them with a @samp{-}.
Such arguments are marked below with ``May be negated'' in their
description.  The descriptions themselves refer to the positive
case, that is, when @emph{not} negated (unless stated otherwise,
of course).

Some settings are not available on all @acronym{POSIX} systems, since they use
extensions.  Such arguments are marked below with ``Non-@acronym{POSIX}'' in their
description.  On non-@acronym{POSIX} systems, those or other settings also may not
be available, but it's not feasible to document all the variations: just
try it and see.

@exitstatus

@menu
* Control::                     Control settings
* Input::                       Input settings
* Output::                      Output settings
* Local::                       Local settings
* Combination::                 Combination settings
* Characters::                  Special characters
* Special::                     Special settings
@end menu


@node Control
@subsection Control settings

@cindex control settings
Control settings:

@table @samp
@item parenb
@opindex parenb
@cindex two-way parity
Generate parity bit in output and expect parity bit in input.
May be negated.

@item parodd
@opindex parodd
@cindex odd parity
@cindex even parity
Set odd parity (even if negated).  May be negated.

@item cs5
@itemx cs6
@itemx cs7
@itemx cs8
@opindex cs@var{n}
@cindex character size
@cindex eight-bit characters
Set character size to 5, 6, 7, or 8 bits.

@item hup
@itemx hupcl
@opindex hup[cl]
Send a hangup signal when the last process closes the tty.  May be
negated.

@item cstopb
@opindex cstopb
@cindex stop bits
Use two stop bits per character (one if negated).  May be negated.

@item cread
@opindex cread
Allow input to be received.  May be negated.

@item clocal
@opindex clocal
@cindex modem control
Disable modem control signals.  May be negated.

@item crtscts
@opindex crtscts
@cindex hardware flow control
@cindex flow control, hardware
@cindex RTS/CTS flow control
Enable RTS/CTS flow control.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.
@end table


@node Input
@subsection Input settings

@cindex input settings

@table @samp
@item ignbrk
@opindex ignbrk
@cindex breaks, ignoring
Ignore break characters.  May be negated.

@item brkint
@opindex brkint
@cindex breaks, cause interrupts
Make breaks cause an interrupt signal.  May be negated.

@item ignpar
@opindex ignpar
@cindex parity, ignoring
Ignore characters with parity errors.  May be negated.

@item parmrk
@opindex parmrk
@cindex parity errors, marking
Mark parity errors (with a 255-0-character sequence).  May be negated.

@item inpck
@opindex inpck
Enable input parity checking.  May be negated.

@item istrip
@opindex istrip
@cindex eight-bit input
Clear high (8th) bit of input characters.  May be negated.

@item inlcr
@opindex inlcr
@cindex newline, translating to return
Translate newline to carriage return.  May be negated.

@item igncr
@opindex igncr
@cindex return, ignoring
Ignore carriage return.  May be negated.

@item icrnl
@opindex icrnl
@cindex return, translating to newline
Translate carriage return to newline.  May be negated.

@item iutf8
@opindex iutf8
@cindex input encoding, UTF-8
Assume input characters are UTF-8 encoded.  May be negated.

@item ixon
@opindex ixon
@kindex C-s/C-q flow control
@cindex XON/XOFF flow control
Enable XON/XOFF flow control (that is, @kbd{CTRL-S}/@kbd{CTRL-Q}).  May
be negated.

@item ixoff
@itemx tandem
@opindex ixoff
@opindex tandem
@cindex software flow control
@cindex flow control, software
Enable sending of @code{stop} character when the system input buffer
is almost full, and @code{start} character when it becomes almost
empty again.  May be negated.

@item iuclc
@opindex iuclc
@cindex uppercase, translating to lowercase
Translate uppercase characters to lowercase.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be
negated.

@item ixany
@opindex ixany
Allow any character to restart output (only the start character
if negated).  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.

@item imaxbel
@opindex imaxbel
@cindex beeping at input buffer full
Enable beeping and not flushing input buffer if a character arrives
when the input buffer is full.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.
@end table


@node Output
@subsection Output settings

@cindex output settings
These arguments specify output-related operations.

@table @samp
@item opost
@opindex opost
Postprocess output.  May be negated.

@item olcuc
@opindex olcuc
@cindex lowercase, translating to output
Translate lowercase characters to uppercase.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be
negated.

@item ocrnl
@opindex ocrnl
@cindex return, translating to newline
Translate carriage return to newline.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.

@item onlcr
@opindex onlcr
@cindex newline, translating to crlf
Translate newline to carriage return-newline.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be
negated.

@item onocr
@opindex onocr
Do not print carriage returns in the first column.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
May be negated.

@item onlret
@opindex onlret
Newline performs a carriage return.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.

@item ofill
@opindex ofill
@cindex pad instead of timing for delaying
Use fill (padding) characters instead of timing for delays.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
May be negated.

@item ofdel
@opindex ofdel
@cindex pad character
Use delete characters for fill instead of null characters.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
May be negated.

@item nl1
@itemx nl0
@opindex nl@var{n}
Newline delay style.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item cr3
@itemx cr2
@itemx cr1
@itemx cr0
@opindex cr@var{n}
Carriage return delay style.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item tab3
@itemx tab2
@itemx tab1
@itemx tab0
@opindex tab@var{n}
Horizontal tab delay style.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item bs1
@itemx bs0
@opindex bs@var{n}
Backspace delay style.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item vt1
@itemx vt0
@opindex vt@var{n}
Vertical tab delay style.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item ff1
@itemx ff0
@opindex ff@var{n}
Form feed delay style.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
@end table


@node Local
@subsection Local settings

@cindex local settings

@table @samp
@item isig
@opindex isig
Enable @code{interrupt}, @code{quit}, and @code{suspend} special
characters.  May be negated.

@item icanon
@opindex icanon
Enable @code{erase}, @code{kill}, @code{werase}, and @code{rprnt}
special characters.  May be negated.

@item iexten
@opindex iexten
Enable non-@acronym{POSIX} special characters.  May be negated.

@item echo
@opindex echo
Echo input characters.  May be negated.

@item echoe
@itemx crterase
@opindex echoe
@opindex crterase
Echo @code{erase} characters as backspace-space-backspace.  May be
negated.

@item echok
@opindex echok
@cindex newline echoing after @code{kill}
Echo a newline after a @code{kill} character.  May be negated.

@item echonl
@opindex echonl
@cindex newline, echoing
Echo newline even if not echoing other characters.  May be negated.

@item noflsh
@opindex noflsh
@cindex flushing, disabling
Disable flushing after @code{interrupt} and @code{quit} special
characters.  May be negated.

@item xcase
@opindex xcase
@cindex case translation
Enable input and output of uppercase characters by preceding their
lowercase equivalents with @samp{\}, when @code{icanon} is set.
Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.

@item tostop
@opindex tostop
@cindex background jobs, stopping at terminal write
Stop background jobs that try to write to the terminal.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
May be negated.

@item echoprt
@itemx prterase
@opindex echoprt
@opindex prterase
Echo erased characters backward, between @samp{\} and @samp{/}.
Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.

@item echoctl
@itemx ctlecho
@opindex echoctl
@opindex ctlecho
@cindex control characters, using @samp{^@var{c}}
@cindex hat notation for control characters
Echo control characters in hat notation (@samp{^@var{c}}) instead
of literally.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.

@item echoke
@itemx crtkill
@opindex echoke
@opindex crtkill
Echo the @code{kill} special character by erasing each character on
the line as indicated by the @code{echoprt} and @code{echoe} settings,
instead of by the @code{echoctl} and @code{echok} settings.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
May be negated.
@end table


@node Combination
@subsection Combination settings

@cindex combination settings
Combination settings:

@table @samp
@item evenp
@opindex evenp
@itemx parity
@opindex parity
Same as @code{parenb -parodd cs7}.  May be negated.  If negated, same
as @code{-parenb cs8}.

@item oddp
@opindex oddp
Same as @code{parenb parodd cs7}.  May be negated.  If negated, same
as @code{-parenb cs8}.

@item nl
@opindex nl
Same as @code{-icrnl -onlcr}.  May be negated.  If negated, same as
@code{icrnl -inlcr -igncr onlcr -ocrnl -onlret}.

@item ek
@opindex ek
Reset the @code{erase} and @code{kill} special characters to their default
values.

@item sane
@opindex sane
Same as:

@c This is too long to write inline.
@example
cread -ignbrk brkint -inlcr -igncr icrnl -ixoff
-iuclc -ixany imaxbel opost -olcuc -ocrnl onlcr
-onocr -onlret -ofill -ofdel nl0 cr0 tab0 bs0 vt0
ff0 isig icanon iexten echo echoe echok -echonl
-noflsh -xcase -tostop -echoprt echoctl echoke
@end example

@noindent
and also sets all special characters to their default values.

@item cooked
@opindex cooked
Same as @code{brkint ignpar istrip icrnl ixon opost isig icanon}, plus
sets the @code{eof} and @code{eol} characters to their default values
if they are the same as the @code{min} and @code{time} characters.
May be negated.  If negated, same as @code{raw}.

@item raw
@opindex raw
Same as:

@example
-ignbrk -brkint -ignpar -parmrk -inpck -istrip
-inlcr -igncr -icrnl -ixon -ixoff -iuclc -ixany
-imaxbel -opost -isig -icanon -xcase min 1 time 0
@end example

@noindent
May be negated.  If negated, same as @code{cooked}.

@item cbreak
@opindex cbreak
Same as @option{-icanon}.  May be negated.  If negated, same as
@code{icanon}.

@item pass8
@opindex pass8
@cindex eight-bit characters
Same as @code{-parenb -istrip cs8}.  May be negated.  If negated,
same as @code{parenb istrip cs7}.

@item litout
@opindex litout
Same as @option{-parenb -istrip -opost cs8}.  May be negated.
If negated, same as @code{parenb istrip opost cs7}.

@item decctlq
@opindex decctlq
Same as @option{-ixany}.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.

@item tabs
@opindex tabs
Same as @code{tab0}.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.  If negated, same
as @code{tab3}.

@item lcase
@itemx LCASE
@opindex lcase
@opindex LCASE
Same as @code{xcase iuclc olcuc}.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.

@item crt
@opindex crt
Same as @code{echoe echoctl echoke}.

@item dec
@opindex dec
Same as @code{echoe echoctl echoke -ixany intr ^C erase ^? kill C-u}.
@end table


@node Characters
@subsection Special characters

@cindex special characters
@cindex characters, special

The special characters' default values vary from system to system.
They are set with the syntax @samp{name value}, where the names are
listed below and the value can be given either literally, in hat
notation (@samp{^@var{c}}), or as an integer which may start with
@samp{0x} to indicate hexadecimal, @samp{0} to indicate octal, or
any other digit to indicate decimal.

@cindex disabling special characters
@kindex u@r{, and disabling special characters}
For GNU stty, giving a value of @code{^-} or @code{undef} disables that
special character.  (This is incompatible with Ultrix @command{stty},
which uses  a value of @samp{u} to disable a special character.  GNU
@command{stty} treats a value @samp{u} like any other, namely to set that
special character to @key{U}.)

@table @samp

@item intr
@opindex intr
Send an interrupt signal.

@item quit
@opindex quit
Send a quit signal.

@item erase
@opindex erase
Erase the last character typed.

@item kill
@opindex kill
Erase the current line.

@item eof
@opindex eof
Send an end of file (terminate the input).

@item eol
@opindex eol
End the line.

@item eol2
@opindex eol2
Alternate character to end the line.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item swtch
@opindex swtch
Switch to a different shell layer.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item start
@opindex start
Restart the output after stopping it.

@item stop
@opindex stop
Stop the output.

@item susp
@opindex susp
Send a terminal stop signal.

@item dsusp
@opindex dsusp
Send a terminal stop signal after flushing the input.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item rprnt
@opindex rprnt
Redraw the current line.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item werase
@opindex werase
Erase the last word typed.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item lnext
@opindex lnext
Enter the next character typed literally, even if it is a special
character.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
@end table


@node Special
@subsection Special settings

@cindex special settings

@table @samp
@item min @var{n}
@opindex min
Set the minimum number of characters that will satisfy a read until
the time value has expired, when @option{-icanon} is set.

@item time @var{n}
@opindex time
Set the number of tenths of a second before reads time out if the minimum
number of characters have not been read, when @option{-icanon} is set.

@item ispeed @var{n}
@opindex ispeed
Set the input speed to @var{n}.

@item ospeed @var{n}
@opindex ospeed
Set the output speed to @var{n}.

@item rows @var{n}
@opindex rows
Tell the tty kernel driver that the terminal has @var{n} rows.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item cols @var{n}
@itemx columns @var{n}
@opindex cols
@opindex columns
Tell the kernel that the terminal has @var{n} columns.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item size
@opindex size
@vindex LINES
@vindex COLUMNS
Print the number of rows and columns that the kernel thinks the
terminal has.  (Systems that don't support rows and columns in the kernel
typically use the environment variables @env{LINES} and @env{COLUMNS}
instead; however, GNU @command{stty} does not know anything about them.)
Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item line @var{n}
@opindex line
Use line discipline @var{n}.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item speed
@opindex speed
Print the terminal speed.

@item @var{n}
@cindex baud rate, setting
@c FIXME: Is this still true that the baud rate can't be set
@c higher than 38400?
Set the input and output speeds to @var{n}.  @var{n} can be one
of: 0 50 75 110 134 134.5 150 200 300 600 1200 1800 2400 4800 9600
19200 38400 @code{exta} @code{extb}.  @code{exta} is the same as
19200; @code{extb} is the same as 38400.  0 hangs up the line if
@option{-clocal} is set.
@end table


@node printenv invocation
@section @command{printenv}: Print all or some environment variables

@pindex printenv
@cindex printing all or some environment variables
@cindex environment variables, printing

@command{printenv} prints environment variable values.  Synopsis:

@example
printenv [@var{option}] [@var{variable}]@dots{}
@end example

If no @var{variable}s are specified, @command{printenv} prints the value of
every environment variable.  Otherwise, it prints the value of each
@var{variable} that is set, and nothing for those that are not set.

The only options are a lone @option{--help} or @option{--version}.
@xref{Common options}.

@cindex exit status of @command{printenv}
Exit status:

@display
0 if all variables specified were found
1 if at least one specified variable was not found
2 if a write error occurred
@end display


@node tty invocation
@section @command{tty}: Print file name of terminal on standard input

@pindex tty
@cindex print terminal file name
@cindex terminal file name, printing

@command{tty} prints the file name of the terminal connected to its standard
input.  It prints @samp{not a tty} if standard input is not a terminal.
Synopsis:

@example
tty [@var{option}]@dots{}
@end example

The program accepts the following option.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -s
@itemx --silent
@itemx --quiet
@opindex -s
@opindex --silent
@opindex --quiet
Print nothing; only return an exit status.

@end table

@cindex exit status of @command{tty}
Exit status:

@display
0 if standard input is a terminal
1 if standard input is not a terminal
2 if given incorrect arguments
3 if a write error occurs
@end display


@node User information
@chapter User information

@cindex user information, commands for
@cindex commands for printing user information

This section describes commands that print user-related information:
logins, groups, and so forth.

@menu
* id invocation::               Print user identity.
* logname invocation::          Print current login name.
* whoami invocation::           Print effective user ID.
* groups invocation::           Print group names a user is in.
* users invocation::            Print login names of users currently logged in.
* who invocation::              Print who is currently logged in.
@end menu


@node id invocation
@section @command{id}: Print user identity

@pindex id
@cindex real user and group IDs, printing
@cindex effective user and group IDs, printing
@cindex printing real and effective user and group IDs

@command{id} prints information about the given user, or the process
running it if no user is specified.  Synopsis:

@example
id [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{username}]
@end example

By default, it prints the real user ID, real group ID, effective user ID
if different from the real user ID, effective group ID if different from
the real group ID, and supplemental group IDs.

Each of these numeric values is preceded by an identifying string and
followed by the corresponding user or group name in parentheses.

The options cause @command{id} to print only part of the above information.
Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp
@item -g
@itemx --group
@opindex -g
@opindex --group
Print only the group ID.

@item -G
@itemx --groups
@opindex -G
@opindex --groups
Print only the group ID and the supplementary groups.

@item -n
@itemx --name
@opindex -n
@opindex --name
Print the user or group name instead of the ID number.  Requires
@option{-u}, @option{-g}, or @option{-G}.

@item -r
@itemx --real
@opindex -r
@opindex --real
Print the real, instead of effective, user or group ID.  Requires
@option{-u}, @option{-g}, or @option{-G}.

@item -u
@itemx --user
@opindex -u
@opindex --user
Print only the user ID.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node logname invocation
@section @command{logname}: Print current login name

@pindex logname
@cindex printing user's login name
@cindex login name, printing
@cindex user name, printing

@flindex utmp
@command{logname} prints the calling user's name, as found in a
system-maintained file (often @file{/var/run/utmp} or
@file{/etc/utmp}), and exits with a status of 0.  If there is no entry
for the calling process, @command{logname} prints
an error message and exits with a status of 1.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.

@exitstatus


@node whoami invocation
@section @command{whoami}: Print effective user ID

@pindex whoami
@cindex effective user ID, printing
@cindex printing the effective user ID

@command{whoami} prints the user name associated with the current
effective user ID.  It is equivalent to the command @samp{id -un}.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.

@exitstatus


@node groups invocation
@section @command{groups}: Print group names a user is in

@pindex groups
@cindex printing groups a user is in
@cindex supplementary groups, printing

@command{groups} prints the names of the primary and any supplementary
groups for each given @var{username}, or the current process if no names
are given.  If more than one name is given, the name of each user is
printed before
the list of that user's groups.  Synopsis:

@example
groups [@var{username}]@dots{}
@end example

The group lists are equivalent to the output of the command @samp{id -Gn}.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.

@exitstatus


@node users invocation
@section @command{users}: Print login names of users currently logged in

@pindex users
@cindex printing current usernames
@cindex usernames, printing current

@cindex login sessions, printing users with
@command{users} prints on a single line a blank-separated list of user
names of users currently logged in to the current host.  Each user name
corresponds to a login session, so if a user has more than one login
session, that user's name will appear the same number of times in the
output.  Synopsis:

@example
users [@var{file}]
@end example

@flindex utmp
@flindex wtmp
With no @var{file} argument, @command{users} extracts its information from
a system-maintained file (often @file{/var/run/utmp} or
@file{/etc/utmp}).  If a file argument is given, @command{users} uses
that file instead.  A common choice is @file{/var/log/wtmp}.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.

@exitstatus


@node who invocation
@section @command{who}: Print who is currently logged in

@pindex who
@cindex printing current user information
@cindex information, about current users

@command{who} prints information about users who are currently logged on.
Synopsis:

@example
@command{who} [@var{option}] [@var{file}] [am i]
@end example

@cindex terminal lines, currently used
@cindex login time
@cindex remote hostname
If given no non-option arguments, @command{who} prints the following
information for each user currently logged on: login name, terminal
line, login time, and remote hostname or X display.

@flindex utmp
@flindex wtmp
If given one non-option argument, @command{who} uses that instead of
a default system-maintained file (often @file{/var/run/utmp} or
@file{/etc/utmp}) as the name of the file containing the record of
users logged on.  @file{/var/log/wtmp} is commonly given as an argument
to @command{who} to look at who has previously logged on.

@opindex am i
@opindex who am i
If given two non-option arguments, @command{who} prints only the entry
for the user running it (determined from its standard input), preceded
by the hostname.  Traditionally, the two arguments given are @samp{am
i}, as in @samp{who am i}.

@vindex TZ
Time stamps are listed according to the time zone rules specified by
the @env{TZ} environment variable, or by the system default rules if
@env{TZ} is not set.  @xref{TZ Variable,, Specifying the Time Zone
with @env{TZ}, libc, The GNU C Library}.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -a
@itemx --all
@opindex -a
@opindex --all
Same as @samp{-b -d --login -p -r -t -T -u}.

@item -b
@itemx --boot
@opindex -b
@opindex --boot
Print the date and time of last system boot.

@item -d
@itemx --dead
@opindex -d
@opindex --dead
Print information corresponding to dead processes.

@item -H
@itemx --heading
@opindex -H
@opindex --heading
Print column headings.

@item -m
@opindex -m
Same as @samp{who am i}.

@item -q
@itemx --count
@opindex -q
@opindex --count
Print only the login names and the number of users logged on.
Overrides all other options.

@item -s
@opindex -s
Ignored; for compatibility with other versions of @command{who}.

@itemx -u
@opindex -u
@cindex idle time
After the login time, print the number of hours and minutes that the
user has been idle.  @samp{.} means the user was active in the last minute.
@samp{old} means the user has been idle for more than 24 hours.

@item -l
@itemx --login
@opindex -l
@opindex --login
List only the entries that correspond to processes via which the
system is waiting for a user to login.  The user name is always @samp{LOGIN}.

@itemx --lookup
@opindex --lookup
Attempt to canonicalize hostnames found in utmp through a DNS lookup.  This
is not the default because it can cause significant delays on systems with
automatic dial-up internet access.

@item -H
@itemx --heading
@opindex -H
@opindex --heading
Print a line of column headings.

@item -w
@itemx -T
@itemx --mesg
@itemx --message
@itemx --writable
@opindex -w
@opindex -T
@opindex --mesg
@opindex --message
@opindex --writable
@cindex message status
@pindex write@r{, allowed}
After each login name print a character indicating the user's message status:

@display
@samp{+} allowing @code{write} messages
@samp{-} disallowing @code{write} messages
@samp{?} cannot find terminal device
@end display

@end table

@exitstatus


@node System context
@chapter System context

@cindex system context
@cindex context, system
@cindex commands for system context

This section describes commands that print or change system-wide
information.

@menu
* date invocation::             Print or set system date and time.
* uname invocation::            Print system information.
* hostname invocation::         Print or set system name.
* hostid invocation::           Print numeric host identifier.
@end menu


@node date invocation
@section @command{date}: Print or set system date and time

@pindex date
@cindex time, printing or setting
@cindex printing the current time

Synopses:

@example
date [@var{option}]@dots{} [+@var{format}]
date [-u|--utc|--universal] @c this avoids a newline in the output
[ MMDDhhmm[[CC]YY][.ss] ]
@end example

@vindex LC_TIME
Invoking @command{date} with no @var{format} argument is equivalent to invoking
it with a default format that depends on the @env{LC_TIME} locale category.
In the default C locale, this format is @samp{'+%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Z %Y'},
so the output looks like @samp{Thu Mar @ 3 13:47:51 PST 2005}.

@vindex TZ
Normally, @command{date} uses the time zone rules indicated by the
@env{TZ} environment variable, or the system default rules if @env{TZ}
is not set.  @xref{TZ Variable,, Specifying the Time Zone with
@env{TZ}, libc, The GNU C Library}.

@findex strftime @r{and @command{date}}
@cindex time formats
@cindex formatting times
If given an argument that starts with a @samp{+}, @command{date} prints the
current date and time (or the date and time specified by the
@option{--date} option, see below) in the format defined by that argument,
which is similar to that of the @code{strftime} function.  Except for
conversion specifiers, which start with @samp{%}, characters in the
format string are printed unchanged.  The conversion specifiers are
described below.

@exitstatus

@menu
* Time conversion specifiers::     %[HIklMNpPrRsSTXzZ]
* Date conversion specifiers::     %[aAbBcCdDeFgGhjmuUVwWxyY]
* Literal conversion specifiers::  %[%nt]
* Padding and other flags::        Pad with zeros, spaces, etc.
* Setting the time::               Changing the system clock.
* Options for date::               Instead of the current time.
* Examples of date::               Examples.
@end menu

@node Time conversion specifiers
@subsection Time conversion specifiers

@cindex time conversion specifiers
@cindex conversion specifiers, time

@command{date} conversion specifiers related to times.

@table @samp
@item %H
hour (@samp{00}@dots{}@samp{23})
@item %I
hour (@samp{01}@dots{}@samp{12})
@item %k
hour (@samp{ 0}@dots{}@samp{23}).
This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
@item %l
hour (@samp{ 1}@dots{}@samp{12}).
This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
@item %M
minute (@samp{00}@dots{}@samp{59})
@item %N
nanoseconds (@samp{000000000}@dots{}@samp{999999999}).
This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
@item %p
locale's equivalent of either @samp{AM} or @samp{PM};
blank in many locales.
Noon is treated as @samp{PM} and midnight as @samp{AM}.
@item %P
like @samp{%p}, except lower case.
This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
@item %r
locale's 12-hour clock time (e.g., @samp{11:11:04 PM})
@item %R
24-hour hour and minute.  Same as @samp{%H:%M}.
This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
@item %s
@cindex epoch, seconds since
@cindex seconds since the epoch
@cindex beginning of time
seconds since the epoch, i.e., since 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC.
Leap seconds are not counted unless leap second support is available.
@xref{%s-examples}, for examples.
This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
@item %S
second (@samp{00}@dots{}@samp{60}).
This may be @samp{60} if leap seconds are supported.
@item %T
24-hour hour, minute, and second.  Same as @samp{%H:%M:%S}.
@item %X
locale's time representation (e.g., @samp{23:13:48})
@item %z
@w{@acronym{RFC} 2822/@acronym{ISO} 8601} style numeric time zone
(e.g., @samp{-0600} or @samp{+0530}), or nothing if no
time zone is determinable.  This value reflects the numeric time zone
appropriate for the current time, using the time zone rules specified
by the @env{TZ} environment variable.
The time (and optionally, the time zone rules) can be overridden
by the @option{--date} option.
This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
@item %:z
@w{@acronym{RFC} 3339/@acronym{ISO} 8601} style numeric time zone with
@samp{:} (e.g., @samp{-06:00} or @samp{+05:30}), or nothing if no time
zone is determinable.
This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
@item %::z
Numeric time zone to the nearest second with @samp{:} (e.g.,
@samp{-06:00:00} or @samp{+05:30:00}), or nothing if no time zone is
determinable.
This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
@item %:::z
Numeric time zone with @samp{:} using the minimum necessary precision
(e.g., @samp{-06}, @samp{+05:30}, or @samp{-04:56:02}), or nothing if
no time zone is determinable.
This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
@item %Z
alphabetic time zone abbreviation (e.g., @samp{EDT}), or nothing if no
time zone is determinable.  See @samp{%z} for how it is determined.
@end table


@node Date conversion specifiers
@subsection Date conversion specifiers

@cindex date conversion specifiers
@cindex conversion specifiers, date

@command{date} conversion specifiers related to dates.

@table @samp
@item %a
locale's abbreviated weekday name (e.g., @samp{Sun})
@item %A
locale's full weekday name, variable length (e.g., @samp{Sunday})
@item %b
locale's abbreviated month name (e.g., @samp{Jan})
@item %B
locale's full month name, variable length (e.g., @samp{January})
@item %c
locale's date and time (e.g., @samp{Thu Mar @ 3 23:05:25 2005})
@item %C
century.  This is like @samp{%Y}, except the last two digits are omitted.
For example, it is @samp{20} if @samp{%Y} is @samp{2000},
and is @samp{-0} if @samp{%Y} is @samp{-001}.
It is normally at least two characters, but it may be more.
@item %d
day of month (e.g., @samp{01})
@item %D
date; same as @samp{%m/%d/%y}
@item %e
day of month, space padded; same as @samp{%_d}
@item %F
full date in @acronym{ISO} 8601 format; same as @samp{%Y-%m-%d}.
This is a good choice for a date format, as it is standard and
is easy to sort in the usual case where years are in the range
0000@dots{}9999.
This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
@item %g
year corresponding to the @acronym{ISO} week number, but without the century
(range @samp{00} through @samp{99}).  This has the same format and value
as @samp{%y}, except that if the @acronym{ISO} week number (see
@samp{%V}) belongs
to the previous or next year, that year is used instead.
This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
@item %G
year corresponding to the @acronym{ISO} week number.  This has the
same format and value as @samp{%Y}, except that if the @acronym{ISO}
week number (see
@samp{%V}) belongs to the previous or next year, that year is used
instead.
It is normally useful only if @samp{%V} is also used;
for example, the format @samp{%G-%m-%d} is probably a mistake,
since it combines the ISO week number year with the conventional month and day.
This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
@item %h
same as @samp{%b}
@item %j
day of year (@samp{001}@dots{}@samp{366})
@item %m
month (@samp{01}@dots{}@samp{12})
@item %u
day of week (@samp{1}@dots{}@samp{7}) with @samp{1} corresponding to Monday
@item %U
week number of year, with Sunday as the first day of the week
(@samp{00}@dots{}@samp{53}).
Days in a new year preceding the first Sunday are in week zero.
@item %V
@acronym{ISO} week number, that is, the
week number of year, with Monday as the first day of the week
(@samp{01}@dots{}@samp{53}).
If the week containing January 1 has four or more days in
the new year, then it is considered week 1; otherwise, it is week 53 of
the previous year, and the next week is week 1.  (See the @acronym{ISO} 8601
standard.)
@item %w
day of week (@samp{0}@dots{}@samp{6}) with 0 corresponding to Sunday
@item %W
week number of year, with Monday as first day of week
(@samp{00}@dots{}@samp{53}).
Days in a new year preceding the first Monday are in week zero.
@item %x
locale's date representation (e.g., @samp{12/31/99})
@item %y
last two digits of year (@samp{00}@dots{}@samp{99})
@item %Y
year.  This is normally at least four characters, but it may be more.
Year @samp{0000} precedes year @samp{0001}, and year @samp{-001}
precedes year @samp{0000}.
@end table


@node Literal conversion specifiers
@subsection Literal conversion specifiers

@cindex literal conversion specifiers
@cindex conversion specifiers, literal

@command{date} conversion specifiers that produce literal strings.

@table @samp
@item %%
a literal %
@item %n
a newline
@item %t
a horizontal tab
@end table


@node Padding and other flags
@subsection Padding and other flags

@cindex numeric field padding
@cindex padding of numeric fields
@cindex fields, padding numeric

Unless otherwise specified, @command{date} normally pads numeric fields
with zeros, so that, for
example, numeric months are always output as two digits.
Seconds since the epoch are not padded, though,
since there is no natural width for them.

As a @acronym{GNU} extension, @command{date} recognizes any of the
following optional flags after the @samp{%}:

@table @samp
@item -
(hyphen) Do not pad the field; useful if the output is intended for
human consumption.
@item _
(underscore) Pad with spaces; useful if you need a fixed
number of characters in the output, but zeros are too distracting.
@item 0
(zero) Pad with zeros even if the conversion specifier
would normally pad with spaces.
@item ^
Use upper case characters if possible.
@item #
Use opposite case characters if possible.
A field that is normally upper case becomes lower case, and vice versa.
@end table

@noindent
Here are some examples of padding:

@example
date +%d/%m -d "Feb 1"
@result{} 01/02
date +%-d/%-m -d "Feb 1"
@result{} 1/2
date +%_d/%_m -d "Feb 1"
@result{}  1/ 2
@end example

As a @acronym{GNU} extension, you can specify the field width
(after any flag, if present) as a decimal number.  If the natural size of the
output is of the field has less than the specified number of characters,
the result is written right adjusted and padded to the given
size.  For example, @samp{%9B} prints the right adjusted month name in
a field of width 9.

An optional modifier can follow the optional flag and width
specification.  The modifiers are:

@table @samp
@item E
Use the locale's alternate representation for date and time.  This
modifier applies to the @samp{%c}, @samp{%C}, @samp{%x}, @samp{%X},
@samp{%y} and @samp{%Y} conversion specifiers.  In a Japanese locale, for
example, @samp{%Ex} might yield a date format based on the Japanese
Emperors' reigns.

@item O
Use the locale's alternate numeric symbols for numbers.  This modifier
applies only to numeric conversion specifiers.
@end table

If the format supports the modifier but no alternate representation
is available, it is ignored.


@node Setting the time
@subsection Setting the time

@cindex setting the time
@cindex time setting
@cindex appropriate privileges

If given an argument that does not start with @samp{+}, @command{date} sets
the system clock to the date and time specified by that argument (as
described below).  You must have appropriate privileges to set the
system clock.  The @option{--date} and @option{--set} options may not be
used with such an argument.  The @option{--universal} option may be used
with such an argument to indicate that the specified date and time are
relative to Coordinated Universal Time rather than to the local time
zone.

The argument must consist entirely of digits, which have the following
meaning:

@table @samp
@item MM
month
@item DD
day within month
@item hh
hour
@item mm
minute
@item CC
first two digits of year (optional)
@item YY
last two digits of year (optional)
@item ss
second (optional)
@end table

The @option{--set} option also sets the system clock; see the next section.


@node Options for date
@subsection Options for @command{date}

@cindex @command{date} options
@cindex options for @command{date}

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -d @var{datestr}
@itemx --date=@var{datestr}
@opindex -d
@opindex --date
@cindex parsing date strings
@cindex date strings, parsing
@cindex arbitrary date strings, parsing
@opindex yesterday
@opindex tomorrow
@opindex next @var{day}
@opindex last @var{day}
Display the date and time specified in @var{datestr} instead of the
current date and time.  @var{datestr} can be in almost any common
format.  It can contain month names, time zones, @samp{am} and @samp{pm},
@samp{yesterday}, etc.  For example, @option{--date="2004-02-27
14:19:13.489392193 +0530"} specifies the instant of time that is
489,392,193 nanoseconds after February 27, 2004 at 2:19:13 PM in a
time zone that is 5 hours and 30 minutes east of @acronym{UTC}.
@xref{Date input formats}.

@item -f @var{datefile}
@itemx --file=@var{datefile}
@opindex -f
@opindex --file
Parse each line in @var{datefile} as with @option{-d} and display the
resulting date and time.  If @var{datefile} is @samp{-}, use standard
input.  This is useful when you have many dates to process, because the
system overhead of starting up the @command{date} executable many times can
be considerable.

@item -r @var{file}
@itemx --reference=@var{file}
@opindex -r
@opindex --reference
Display the date and time of the last modification of @var{file},
instead of the current date and time.

@item -R
@itemx --rfc-822
@itemx --rfc-2822
@opindex -R
@opindex --rfc-822
@opindex --rfc-2822
Display the date and time using the format @samp{%a, %d %b %Y %H:%M:%S
%z}, evaluated in the C locale so abbreviations are always in English.
For example:

@example
Fri, 09 Sep 2005 13:51:39 -0700
@end example

This format conforms to
@uref{ftp://ftp.rfc-editor.org/in-notes/rfc2822.txt, Internet
@acronym{RFCs} 2822} and
@uref{ftp://ftp.rfc-editor.org/in-notes/rfc822.txt, 822}, the
current and previous standards for Internet email.

@item --rfc-3339=@var{timespec}
@opindex --rfc-3339=@var{timespec}
Display the date using a format specified by
@uref{ftp://ftp.rfc-editor.org/in-notes/rfc3339.txt, Internet
@acronym{RFC} 3339}.  This is a subset of the @acronym{ISO} 8601
format, except that it also permits applications to use a space rather
than a @samp{T} to separate dates from times.  Unlike the other
standard formats, @acronym{RFC} 3339 format is always suitable as
input for the @option{--date} (@option{-d}) and @option{--file}
(@option{-f}) options, regardless of the current locale.

The argument @var{timespec} specifies how much of the time to include.
It can be one of the following:

@table @samp
@item date
Print just the full-date, e.g., @samp{2005-09-14}.
This is equivalent to the format @samp{%Y-%m-%d}.

@item seconds
Print the full-date and full-time separated by a space, e.g.,
@samp{2005-09-14 00:56:06+05:30}.  The output ends with a numeric
time-offset; here the @samp{+05:30} means that local time is five
hours and thirty minutes east of @acronym{UTC}.  This is equivalent to
the format @samp{%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S%:z}.

@item ns
Like @samp{seconds}, but also print nanoseconds, e.g.,
@samp{2005-09-14 00:56:06.998458565+05:30}.
This is equivalent to the format @samp{%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S.%N%:z}.

@end table

@item -s @var{datestr}
@itemx --set=@var{datestr}
@opindex -s
@opindex --set
Set the date and time to @var{datestr}.  See @option{-d} above.

@item -u
@itemx --utc
@itemx --universal
@opindex -u
@opindex --utc
@opindex --universal
@cindex Coordinated Universal Time
@cindex UTC
@cindex Greenwich Mean Time
@cindex GMT
@vindex TZ
Use Coordinated Universal Time (@acronym{UTC}) by operating as if the
@env{TZ} environment variable were set to the string @samp{UTC0}.
Coordinated
Universal Time is often called ``Greenwich Mean Time'' (@sc{gmt}) for
historical reasons.
@end table


@node Examples of date
@subsection Examples of @command{date}

@cindex examples of @command{date}

Here are a few examples.  Also see the documentation for the @option{-d}
option in the previous section.

@itemize @bullet

@item
To print the date of the day before yesterday:

@example
date --date='2 days ago'
@end example

@item
To print the date of the day three months and one day hence:

@example
date --date='3 months 1 day'
@end example

@item
To print the day of year of Christmas in the current year:

@example
date --date='25 Dec' +%j
@end example

@item
To print the current full month name and the day of the month:

@example
date '+%B %d'
@end example

But this may not be what you want because for the first nine days of
the month, the @samp{%d} expands to a zero-padded two-digit field,
for example @samp{date -d 1may '+%B %d'} will print @samp{May 01}.

@item
To print a date without the leading zero for one-digit days
of the month, you can use the (@acronym{GNU} extension)
@samp{-} flag to suppress
the padding altogether:

@example
date -d 1may '+%B %-d
@end example

@item
To print the current date and time in the format required by many
non-@acronym{GNU} versions of @command{date} when setting the system clock:

@example
date +%m%d%H%M%Y.%S
@end example

@item
To set the system clock forward by two minutes:

@example
date --set='+2 minutes'
@end example

@item
To print the date in @acronym{RFC} 2822 format,
use @samp{date --rfc-2822}.  Here is some example output:

@example
Fri, 09 Sep 2005 13:51:39 -0700
@end example

@anchor{%s-examples}
@item
To convert a date string to the number of seconds since the epoch
(which is 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC), use the @option{--date} option with
the @samp{%s} format.  That can be useful in sorting and/or graphing
and/or comparing data by date.  The following command outputs the
number of the seconds since the epoch for the time two minutes after the
epoch:

@example
date --date='1970-01-01 00:02:00 +0000' +%s
120
@end example

If you do not specify time zone information in the date string,
@command{date} uses your computer's idea of the time zone when
interpreting the string.  For example, if your computer's time zone is
that of Cambridge, Massachusetts, which was then 5 hours (i.e., 18,000
seconds) behind UTC:

@example
# local time zone used
date --date='1970-01-01 00:02:00' +%s
18120
@end example

@item
If you're sorting or graphing dated data, your raw date values may be
represented as seconds since the epoch.  But few people can look at
the date @samp{946684800} and casually note ``Oh, that's the first second
of the year 2000 in Greenwich, England.''

@example
date --date='2000-01-01 UTC' +%s
946684800
@end example

An alternative is to use the @option{--utc} (@option{-u}) option.
Then you may omit @samp{UTC} from the date string.  Although this
produces the same result for @samp{%s} and many other format sequences,
with a time zone offset different from zero, it would give a different
result for zone-dependent formats like @samp{%z}.

@example
date -u --date=2000-01-01 +%s
946684800
@end example

To convert such an unwieldy number of seconds back to
a more readable form, use a command like this:

@smallexample
# local time zone used
date -d '1970-01-01 UTC 946684800 seconds' +"%Y-%m-%d %T %z"
1999-12-31 19:00:00 -0500
@end smallexample

Or if you do not mind depending on the @samp{@@} feature present since
coreutils 5.3.0, you could shorten this to:

@smallexample
date -d @@946684800 +"%F %T %z"
1999-12-31 19:00:00 -0500
@end smallexample

Often it is better to output UTC-relative date and time:

@smallexample
date -u -d '1970-01-01 946684800 seconds' +"%Y-%m-%d %T %z"
2000-01-01 00:00:00 +0000
@end smallexample

@end itemize


@node uname invocation
@section @command{uname}: Print system information

@pindex uname
@cindex print system information
@cindex system information, printing

@command{uname} prints information about the machine and operating system
it is run on.  If no options are given, @command{uname} acts as if the
@option{-s} option were given.  Synopsis:

@example
uname [@var{option}]@dots{}
@end example

If multiple options or @option{-a} are given, the selected information is
printed in this order:

@example
@var{kernel-name} @var{nodename} @var{kernel-release} @var{kernel-version}
@var{machine} @var{processor} @var{hardware-platform} @var{operating-system}
@end example

The information may contain internal spaces, so such output cannot be
parsed reliably.  In the following example, @var{release} is
@samp{2.2.18ss.e820-bda652a #4 SMP Tue Jun 5 11:24:08 PDT 2001}:

@smallexample
uname -a
@result{} Linux dum 2.2.18 #4 SMP Tue Jun 5 11:24:08 PDT 2001 i686 unknown unknown GNU/Linux
@end smallexample


The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -a
@itemx --all
@opindex -a
@opindex --all
Print all of the below information, except omit the processor type
and the hardware platform name if they are unknown.

@item -i
@itemx --hardware-platform
@opindex -i
@opindex --hardware-platform
@cindex implementation, hardware
@cindex hardware platform
@cindex platform, hardware
Print the hardware platform name
(sometimes called the hardware implementation).
Print @samp{unknown} if the kernel does not make this information
easily available, as is the case with Linux kernels.

@item -m
@itemx --machine
@opindex -m
@opindex --machine
@cindex machine type
@cindex hardware class
@cindex hardware type
Print the machine hardware name (sometimes called the hardware class
or hardware type).

@item -n
@itemx --nodename
@opindex -n
@opindex --nodename
@cindex hostname
@cindex node name
@cindex network node name
Print the network node hostname.

@item -p
@itemx --processor
@opindex -p
@opindex --processor
@cindex host processor type
Print the processor type (sometimes called the instruction set
architecture or ISA).
Print @samp{unknown} if the kernel does not make this information
easily available, as is the case with Linux kernels.

@item -o
@itemx --operating-system
@opindex -o
@opindex --operating-system
@cindex operating system name
Print the name of the operating system.

@item -r
@itemx --kernel-release
@opindex -r
@opindex --kernel-release
@cindex kernel release
@cindex release of kernel
Print the kernel release.

@item -s
@itemx --kernel-name
@opindex -s
@opindex --kernel-name
@cindex kernel name
@cindex name of kernel
Print the kernel name.
@acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards conformance}) calls this
``the implementation of the operating system'', because the
@acronym{POSIX} specification itself has no notion of ``kernel''.
The kernel name might be the same as the operating system name printed
by the @option{-o} or @option{--operating-system} option, but it might
differ.  Some operating systems (e.g., FreeBSD, HP-UX) have the same
name as their underlying kernels; others (e.g., GNU/Linux, Solaris)
do not.

@item -v
@itemx --kernel-version
@opindex -v
@opindex --kernel-version
@cindex kernel version
@cindex version of kernel
Print the kernel version.

@end table

@exitstatus


@node hostname invocation
@section @command{hostname}: Print or set system name

@pindex hostname
@cindex setting the hostname
@cindex printing the hostname
@cindex system name, printing
@cindex appropriate privileges

With no arguments, @command{hostname} prints the name of the current host
system.  With one argument, it sets the current host name to the
specified string.  You must have appropriate privileges to set the host
name.  Synopsis:

@example
hostname [@var{name}]
@end example

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.

@exitstatus


@node hostid invocation
@section @command{hostid}: Print numeric host identifier.

@pindex hostid
@cindex printing the host identifier

@command{hostid} prints the numeric identifier of the current host
in hexadecimal.  This command accepts no arguments.
The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.
@xref{Common options}.

For example, here's what it prints on one system I use:

@example
$ hostid
1bac013d
@end example

On that system, the 32-bit quantity happens to be closely
related to the system's Internet address, but that isn't always
the case.

@exitstatus


@node Modified command invocation
@chapter Modified command invocation

@cindex modified command invocation
@cindex invocation of commands, modified
@cindex commands for invoking other commands

This section describes commands that run other commands in some context
different than the current one: a modified environment, as a different
user, etc.

@menu
* chroot invocation::           Modify the root directory.
* env invocation::              Modify environment variables.
* nice invocation::             Modify niceness.
* nohup invocation::            Immunize to hangups.
* su invocation::               Modify user and group ID.
@end menu


@node chroot invocation
@section @command{chroot}: Run a command with a different root directory

@pindex chroot
@cindex running a program in a specified root directory
@cindex root directory, running a program in a specified

@command{chroot} runs a command with a specified root directory.
On many systems, only the super-user can do this.
Synopses:

@example
chroot @var{newroot} [@var{command} [@var{args}]@dots{}]
chroot @var{option}
@end example

Ordinarily, file names are looked up starting at the root of the
directory structure, i.e., @file{/}.  @command{chroot} changes the root to
the directory @var{newroot} (which must exist) and then runs
@var{command} with optional @var{args}.  If @var{command} is not
specified, the default is the value of the @env{SHELL} environment
variable or @command{/bin/sh} if not set, invoked with the @option{-i} option.
@var{command} must not be a special built-in utility
(@pxref{Special built-in utilities}).

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.  Options must precede operands.

Here are a few tips to help avoid common problems in using chroot.
To start with a simple example, make @var{command} refer to a statically
linked binary.  If you were to use a dynamically linked executable, then
you'd have to arrange to have the shared libraries in the right place under
your new root directory.

For example, if you create a statically linked @command{ls} executable,
and put it in @file{/tmp/empty}, you can run this command as root:

@example
$ chroot /tmp/empty /ls -Rl /
@end example

Then you'll see output like this:

@example
/:
total 1023
-rwxr-xr-x 1 0 0 1041745 Aug 16 11:17 ls
@end example

If you want to use a dynamically linked executable, say @command{bash},
then first run @samp{ldd bash} to see what shared objects it needs.
Then, in addition to copying the actual binary, also copy the listed
files to the required positions under your intended new root directory.
Finally, if the executable requires any other files (e.g., data, state,
device files), copy them into place, too.

@cindex exit status of @command{chroot}
Exit status:

@display
1   if @command{chroot} itself fails
126 if @var{command} is found but cannot be invoked
127 if @var{command} cannot be found
the exit status of @var{command} otherwise
@end display


@node env invocation
@section @command{env}: Run a command in a modified environment

@pindex env
@cindex environment, running a program in a modified
@cindex modified environment, running a program in a
@cindex running a program in a modified environment

@command{env} runs a command with a modified environment.  Synopses:

@example
env [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{name}=@var{value}]@dots{} @c
[@var{command} [@var{args}]@dots{}]
env
@end example

Operands of the form @samp{@var{variable}=@var{value}} set
the environment variable @var{variable} to value @var{value}.
@var{value} may be empty (@samp{@var{variable}=}).  Setting a variable
to an empty value is different from unsetting it.
These operands are evaluated left-to-right, so if two operands
mention the same variable the earlier is ignored.

Environment variable names can be empty, and can contain any
characters other than @samp{=} and the null character (@acronym{ASCII}
@sc{nul}).  However, it is wise to limit yourself to names that
consist solely of underscores, digits, and @acronym{ASCII} letters,
and that begin with a non-digit, as applications like the shell do not
work well with other names.

@vindex PATH
The first operand that does not contain the character @samp{=}
specifies the program to invoke; it is
searched for according to the @env{PATH} environment variable.  Any
remaining arguments are passed as arguments to that program.
The program should not be a special built-in utility
(@pxref{Special built-in utilities}).

@cindex environment, printing

If no command name is specified following the environment
specifications, the resulting environment is printed.  This is like
specifying the @command{printenv} program.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.
Options must precede operands.

@table @samp

@item -u @var{name}
@itemx --unset=@var{name}
@opindex -u
@opindex --unset
Remove variable @var{name} from the environment, if it was in the
environment.

@item -
@itemx -i
@itemx --ignore-environment
@opindex -
@opindex -i
@opindex --ignore-environment
Start with an empty environment, ignoring the inherited environment.

@end table

@cindex exit status of @command{env}
Exit status:

@display
0   if no @var{command} is specified and the environment is output
1   if @command{env} itself fails
126 if @var{command} is found but cannot be invoked
127 if @var{command} cannot be found
the exit status of @var{command} otherwise
@end display


@node nice invocation
@section @command{nice}: Run a command with modified niceness

@pindex nice
@cindex niceness
@cindex scheduling, affecting
@cindex appropriate privileges

@command{nice} prints or modifies a process's @dfn{niceness},
a parameter that affects whether the process is scheduled favorably.
Synopsis:

@example
nice [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{command} [@var{arg}]@dots{}]
@end example

If no arguments are given, @command{nice} prints the current niceness.
Otherwise, @command{nice} runs the given @var{command} with its
niceness adjusted.  By default, its niceness is incremented by 10.

Nicenesses range at least from @minus{}20 (resulting in the most
favorable scheduling) through 19 (the least favorable).  Some systems
may have a wider range of nicenesses; conversely, other systems may
enforce more restrictive limits.  An attempt to set the niceness
outside the supported range is treated as an attempt to use the
minimum or maximum supported value.

A niceness should not be confused with a scheduling priority, which
lets applications determine the order in which threads are scheduled
to run.  Unlike a priority, a niceness is merely advice to the
scheduler, which the scheduler is free to ignore.  Also, as a point of
terminology, @acronym{POSIX} defines the behavior of @command{nice} in
terms of a @dfn{nice value}, which is the nonnegative difference
between a niceness and the minimum niceness.  Though @command{nice}
conforms to @acronym{POSIX}, its documentation and diagnostics use the
term ``niceness'' for compatibility with historical practice.

@var{command} must not be a special built-in utility (@pxref{Special
built-in utilities}).

@cindex conflicts with shell built-ins
@cindex built-in shell commands, conflicts with
Because many shells have a built-in @command{nice} command, using an
unadorned @command{nice} in a script or interactively may get you
different functionality than that described here.

The program accepts the following option.  Also see @ref{Common options}.
Options must precede operands.

@table @samp
@item -n @var{adjustment}
@itemx --adjustment=@var{adjustment}
@opindex -n
@opindex --adjustment
Add @var{adjustment} instead of 10 to the command's niceness.  If
@var{adjustment} is negative and you lack appropriate privileges,
@command{nice} issues a warning but otherwise acts as if you specified
a zero adjustment.

For compatibility @command{nice} also supports an obsolete
option syntax @option{-@var{adjustment}}.  New scripts should use
@option{-n @var{adjustment}} instead.

@end table

@cindex exit status of @command{nice}
Exit status:

@display
0   if no @var{command} is specified and the niceness is output
1   if @command{nice} itself fails
126 if @var{command} is found but cannot be invoked
127 if @var{command} cannot be found
the exit status of @var{command} otherwise
@end display

It is sometimes useful to run a non-interactive program with reduced niceness.

@example
$ nice factor 4611686018427387903
@end example

Since @command{nice} prints the current niceness,
you can invoke it through itself to demonstrate how it works.

The default behavior is to increase the niceness by @samp{10}:

@example
$ nice
0
$ nice nice
10
$ nice -n 10 nice
10
@end example

The @var{adjustment} is relative to the current niceness.  In the
next example, the first @command{nice} invocation runs the second one
with niceness 10, and it in turn runs the final one with a niceness
that is 3 more:

@example
$ nice nice -n 3 nice
13
@end example

Specifying a niceness larger than the supported range
is the same as specifying the maximum supported value:

@example
$ nice -n 10000000000 nice
19
@end example

Only a privileged user may run a process with lower niceness:

@example
$ nice -n -1 nice
nice: cannot set niceness: Permission denied
0
$ sudo nice -n -1 nice
-1
@end example


@node nohup invocation
@section @command{nohup}: Run a command immune to hangups

@pindex nohup
@cindex hangups, immunity to
@cindex immunity to hangups
@cindex logging out and continuing to run

@flindex nohup.out
@command{nohup} runs the given @var{command} with hangup signals ignored,
so that the command can continue running in the background after you log
out.  Synopsis:

@example
nohup @var{command} [@var{arg}]@dots{}
@end example

If standard input is a terminal, it is redirected from
@file{/dev/null} so that terminal sessions do not mistakenly consider
the terminal to be used by the command.  This is a @acronym{GNU}
extension; programs intended to be portable to non-@acronym{GNU} hosts
should use @samp{nohup @var{command} [@var{arg}]@dots{} </dev/null}
instead.

@flindex nohup.out
If standard output is a terminal, the command's standard output is appended
to the file @file{nohup.out}; if that cannot be written to, it is appended
to the file @file{$HOME/nohup.out}; and if that cannot be written to, the
command is not run.
Any @file{nohup.out} or @file{$HOME/nohup.out} file created by
@command{nohup} is made readable and writable only to the user,
regardless of the current umask settings.

If standard error is a terminal, it is normally redirected to the same file
descriptor as the (possibly-redirected) standard output.
However, if standard output is closed, standard error terminal output
is instead appended to the file @file{nohup.out} or
@file{$HOME/nohup.out} as above.

@command{nohup} does not automatically put the command it runs in the
background; you must do that explicitly, by ending the command line
with an @samp{&}.  Also, @command{nohup} does not alter the
niceness of @var{command}; use @command{nice} for that,
e.g., @samp{nohup nice @var{command}}.

@var{command} must not be a special built-in utility (@pxref{Special
built-in utilities}).

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.  Options must precede operands.

@cindex exit status of @command{nohup}
Exit status:

@display
126 if @var{command} is found but cannot be invoked
127 if @command{nohup} itself fails or if @var{command} cannot be found
the exit status of @var{command} otherwise
@end display


@node su invocation
@section @command{su}: Run a command with substitute user and group ID

@pindex su
@cindex substitute user and group IDs
@cindex user ID, switching
@cindex super-user, becoming
@cindex root, becoming

@command{su} allows one user to temporarily become another user.  It runs a
command (often an interactive shell) with the real and effective user
ID, group ID, and supplemental groups of a given @var{user}.  Synopsis:

@example
su [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{user} [@var{arg}]@dots{}]
@end example

@cindex passwd entry, and @command{su} shell
@flindex /bin/sh
@flindex /etc/passwd
If no @var{user} is given, the default is @code{root}, the super-user.
The shell to use is taken from @var{user}'s @code{passwd} entry, or
@file{/bin/sh} if none is specified there.  If @var{user} has a
password, @command{su} prompts for the password unless run by a user with
effective user ID of zero (the super-user).

@vindex HOME
@vindex SHELL
@vindex USER
@vindex LOGNAME
@cindex login shell
By default, @command{su} does not change the current directory.
It sets the environment variables @env{HOME} and @env{SHELL}
from the password entry for @var{user}, and if @var{user} is not
the super-user, sets @env{USER} and @env{LOGNAME} to @var{user}.
By default, the shell is not a login shell.

Any additional @var{arg}s are passed as additional arguments to the
shell.

@cindex @option{-su}
GNU @command{su} does not treat @file{/bin/sh} or any other shells specially
(e.g., by setting @code{argv[0]} to @option{-su}, passing @option{-c} only
to certain shells, etc.).

@findex syslog
@command{su} can optionally be compiled to use @code{syslog} to report
failed, and optionally successful, @command{su} attempts.  (If the system
supports @code{syslog}.)  However, GNU @command{su} does not check if the
user is a member of the @code{wheel} group; see below.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp
@item -c @var{command}
@itemx --command=@var{command}
@opindex -c
@opindex --command
Pass @var{command}, a single command line to run, to the shell with
a @option{-c} option instead of starting an interactive shell.

@item -f
@itemx --fast
@opindex -f
@opindex --fast
@flindex .cshrc
@cindex file name pattern expansion, disabled
@cindex globbing, disabled
Pass the @option{-f} option to the shell.  This probably only makes sense
if the shell run is @command{csh} or @command{tcsh}, for which the @option{-f}
option prevents reading the startup file (@file{.cshrc}).  With
Bourne-like shells, the @option{-f} option disables file name pattern
expansion (globbing), which is not likely to be useful.

@item -
@itemx -l
@itemx --login
@opindex -
@opindex -l
@opindex --login
@c other variables already indexed above
@vindex TERM
@vindex PATH
@cindex login shell, creating
Make the shell a login shell.  This means the following.  Unset all
environment variables except @env{TERM}, @env{HOME}, and @env{SHELL}
(which are set as described above), and @env{USER} and @env{LOGNAME}
(which are set, even for the super-user, as described above), and set
@env{PATH} to a compiled-in default value.  Change to @var{user}'s home
directory.  Prepend @samp{-} to the shell's name, intended to make it
read its login startup file(s).

@item -m
@itemx -p
@itemx --preserve-environment
@opindex -m
@opindex -p
@opindex --preserve-environment
@cindex environment, preserving
@flindex /etc/shells
@cindex restricted shell
Do not change the environment variables @env{HOME}, @env{USER},
@env{LOGNAME}, or @env{SHELL}.  Run the shell given in the environment
variable @env{SHELL} instead of the shell from @var{user}'s passwd
entry, unless the user running @command{su} is not the super-user and
@var{user}'s shell is restricted.  A @dfn{restricted shell} is one that
is not listed in the file @file{/etc/shells}, or in a compiled-in list
if that file does not exist.  Parts of what this option does can be
overridden by @option{--login} and @option{--shell}.

@item -s @var{shell}
@itemx --shell=@var{shell}
@opindex -s
@opindex --shell
Run @var{shell} instead of the shell from @var{user}'s passwd entry,
unless the user running @command{su} is not the super-user and @var{user}'s
shell is restricted (see @option{-m} just above).

@end table

@cindex exit status of @command{su}
Exit status:

@display
1   if @command{su} itself fails
126 if subshell is found but cannot be invoked
127 if subshell cannot be found
the exit status of the subshell otherwise
@end display

@cindex wheel group, not supported
@cindex group wheel, not supported
@cindex fascism
@subsection Why GNU @command{su} does not support the @samp{wheel} group

(This section is by Richard Stallman.)

@cindex Twenex
@cindex MIT AI lab
Sometimes a few of the users try to hold total power over all the
rest.  For example, in 1984, a few users at the MIT AI lab decided to
seize power by changing the operator password on the Twenex system and
keeping it secret from everyone else.  (I was able to thwart this coup
and give power back to the users by patching the kernel, but I
wouldn't know how to do that in Unix.)

However, occasionally the rulers do tell someone.  Under the usual
@command{su} mechanism, once someone learns the root password who
sympathizes with the ordinary users, he or she can tell the rest.  The
``wheel group'' feature would make this impossible, and thus cement the
power of the rulers.

I'm on the side of the masses, not that of the rulers.  If you are
used to supporting the bosses and sysadmins in whatever they do, you
might find this idea strange at first.


@node Process control
@chapter Process control

@cindex processes, commands for controlling
@cindex commands for controlling processes

@menu
* kill invocation::             Sending a signal to processes.
@end menu


@node kill invocation
@section @command{kill}: Send a signal to processes

@pindex kill
@cindex send a signal to processes

The @command{kill} command sends a signal to processes, causing them
to terminate or otherwise act upon receiving the signal in some way.
Alternatively, it lists information about signals.  Synopses:

@example
kill [-s @var{signal} | --signal @var{signal} | -@var{signal}] @var{pid}@dots{}
kill [-l | --list | -t | --table] [@var{signal}]@dots{}
@end example

The first form of the @command{kill} command sends a signal to all
@var{pid} arguments.  The default signal to send if none is specified
is @samp{TERM}.  The special signal number @samp{0} does not denote a
valid signal, but can be used to test whether the @var{pid} arguments
specify processes to which a signal could be sent.

If @var{pid} is positive, the signal is sent to the process with the
process ID @var{pid}.  If @var{pid} is zero, the signal is sent to all
processes in the process group of the current process.  If @var{pid}
is @minus{}1, the signal is sent to all processes for which the user has
permission to send a signal.  If @var{pid} is less than @minus{}1, the signal
is sent to all processes in the process group that equals the absolute
value of @var{pid}.

If @var{pid} is not positive, a system-dependent set of system
processes is excluded from the list of processes to which the signal
is sent.

If a negative @var{PID} argument is desired as the first one, it
should be preceded by @option{--}.  However, as a common extension to
@acronym{POSIX}, @option{--} is not required with @samp{kill
-@var{signal} -@var{pid}}.  The following commands are equivalent:

@example
kill -15 -1
kill -TERM -1
kill -s TERM -- -1
kill -- -1
@end example

The first form of the @command{kill} command succeeds if every @var{pid}
argument specifies at least one process that the signal was sent to.

The second form of the @command{kill} command lists signal information.
Either the @option{-l} or @option{--list} option, or the @option{-t}
or @option{--table} option must be specified.  Without any
@var{signal} argument, all supported signals are listed.  The output
of @option{-l} or @option{--list} is a list of the signal names, one
per line; if @var{signal} is already a name, the signal number is
printed instead.  The output of @option{-t} or @option{--table} is a
table of signal numbers, names, and descriptions.  This form of the
@command{kill} command succeeds if all @var{signal} arguments are valid
and if there is no output error.

The @command{kill} command also supports the @option{--help} and
@option{--version} options.  @xref{Common options}.

A @var{signal} may be a signal name like @samp{HUP}, or a signal
number like @samp{1}, or an exit status of a process terminated by the
signal.  A signal name can be given in canonical form or prefixed by
@samp{SIG}.  The case of the letters is ignored, except for the
@option{-@var{signal}} option which must use upper case to avoid
ambiguity with lower case option letters.  The following signal names
and numbers are supported on all @acronym{POSIX} compliant systems:

@table @samp
@item HUP
1.  Hangup.
@item INT
2.  Terminal interrupt.
@item QUIT
3.  Terminal quit.
@item ABRT
6.  Process abort.
@item KILL
9.  Kill (cannot be caught or ignored).
@item ALRM
14.  Alarm Clock.
@item TERM
15.  Termination.
@end table

@noindent
Other supported signal names have system-dependent corresponding
numbers.  All systems conforming to @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 also
support the following signals:

@table @samp
@item BUS
Access to an undefined portion of a memory object.
@item CHLD
Child process terminated, stopped, or continued.
@item CONT
Continue executing, if stopped.
@item FPE
Erroneous arithmetic operation.
@item ILL
Illegal Instruction.
@item PIPE
Write on a pipe with no one to read it.
@item SEGV
Invalid memory reference.
@item STOP
Stop executing (cannot be caught or ignored).
@item TSTP
Terminal stop.
@item TTIN
Background process attempting read.
@item TTOU
Background process attempting write.
@item URG
High bandwidth data is available at a socket.
@item USR1
User-defined signal 1.
@item USR2
User-defined signal 2.
@end table

@noindent
@acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 systems that support the @acronym{XSI} extension
also support the following signals:

@table @samp
@item POLL
Pollable event.
@item PROF
Profiling timer expired.
@item SYS
Bad system call.
@item TRAP
Trace/breakpoint trap.
@item VTALRM
Virtual timer expired.
@item XCPU
CPU time limit exceeded.
@item XFSZ
File size limit exceeded.
@end table

@noindent
@acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 systems that support the @acronym{XRT} extension
also support at least eight real-time signals called @samp{RTMIN},
@samp{RTMIN+1}, @dots{}, @samp{RTMAX-1}, @samp{RTMAX}.


@node Delaying
@chapter Delaying

@cindex delaying commands
@cindex commands for delaying

@c Perhaps @command{wait} or other commands should be described here also?

@menu
* sleep invocation::            Delay for a specified time.
@end menu


@node sleep invocation
@section @command{sleep}: Delay for a specified time

@pindex sleep
@cindex delay for a specified time

@command{sleep} pauses for an amount of time specified by the sum of
the values of the command line arguments.
Synopsis:

@example
sleep @var{number}[smhd]@dots{}
@end example

@cindex time units
Each argument is a number followed by an optional unit; the default
is seconds.  The units are:

@table @samp
@item s
seconds
@item m
minutes
@item h
hours
@item d
days
@end table

Historical implementations of @command{sleep} have required that
@var{number} be an integer, and only accepted a single argument
without a suffix.  However, GNU @command{sleep} accepts
arbitrary floating point numbers (using a period before any fractional
digits).

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.

@exitstatus


@node Numeric operations
@chapter Numeric operations

@cindex numeric operations
These programs do numerically-related operations.

@menu
* factor invocation::              Show factors of numbers.
* seq invocation::                 Print sequences of numbers.
@end menu


@node factor invocation
@section @command{factor}: Print prime factors

@pindex factor
@cindex prime factors

@command{factor} prints prime factors.  Synopses:

@example
factor [@var{number}]@dots{}
factor @var{option}
@end example

If no @var{number} is specified on the command line, @command{factor} reads
numbers from standard input, delimited by newlines, tabs, or spaces.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.

The algorithm it uses is not very sophisticated, so for some inputs
@command{factor} runs for a long time.  The hardest numbers to factor are
the products of large primes.  Factoring the product of the two largest 32-bit
prime numbers takes about 80 seconds of CPU time on a 1.6 GHz Athlon.

@example
$ p=`echo '4294967279 * 4294967291'|bc`
$ factor $p
18446743979220271189: 4294967279 4294967291
@end example

Similarly, it takes about 80 seconds for GNU factor (from coreutils-5.1.2)
to ``factor'' the largest 64-bit prime:

@example
$ factor 18446744073709551557
  18446744073709551557: 18446744073709551557
@end example

In contrast, @command{factor} factors the largest 64-bit number in just
over a tenth of a second:

@example
$ factor `echo '2^64-1'|bc`
18446744073709551615: 3 5 17 257 641 65537 6700417
@end example

@exitstatus


@node seq invocation
@section @command{seq}: Print numeric sequences

@pindex seq
@cindex numeric sequences
@cindex sequence of numbers

@command{seq} prints a sequence of numbers to standard output.  Synopses:

@example
seq [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{last}
seq [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{first} @var{last}
seq [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{first} @var{increment} @var{last}
@end example

@command{seq} prints the numbers from @var{first} to @var{last} by
@var{increment}.  By default, each number is printed on a separate line.
When @var{increment} is not specified, it defaults to @samp{1},
even when @var{first} is larger than @var{last}.
@var{first} also defaults to @samp{1}.  So @code{seq 1} prints
@samp{1}, but @code{seq 0} and @code{seq 10 5} produce no output.
Floating-point numbers
may be specified (using a period before any fractional digits).

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.
Options must precede operands.

@table @samp
@item -f @var{format}
@itemx --format=@var{format}
@opindex -f @var{format}
@opindex --format=@var{format}
@cindex formatting of numbers in @command{seq}
Print all numbers using @var{format}.
@var{format} must contain exactly one of the @samp{printf}-style
floating point conversion specifications @samp{%a}, @samp{%e},
@samp{%f}, @samp{%g}, @samp{%A}, @samp{%E}, @samp{%F}, @samp{%G}.
The @samp{%} may be followed by zero or more flags taken from the set
@samp{-+#0 '}, then an optional width containing one or more digits,
then an optional precision consisting of a @samp{.} followed by zero
or more digits.  @var{format} may also contain any number of @samp{%%}
conversion specifications.  All conversion specifications have the
same meaning as with @samp{printf}.

The default format is derived from @var{first}, @var{step}, and
@var{last}.  If these all use a fixed point decimal representation,
the default format is @samp{%.@var{p}f}, where @var{p} is the minimum
precision that can represent the output numbers exactly.  Otherwise,
the default format is @samp{%g}.

@item -s @var{string}
@itemx --separator=@var{string}
@cindex separator for numbers in @command{seq}
Separate numbers with @var{string}; default is a newline.
The output always terminates with a newline.

@item -w
@itemx --equal-width
Print all numbers with the same width, by padding with leading zeros.
@var{first}, @var{step}, and @var{last} should all use a fixed point
decimal representation.
(To have other kinds of padding, use @option{--format}).

@end table

You can get finer-grained control over output with @option{-f}:

@example
$ seq -f '(%9.2E)' -9e5 1.1e6 1.3e6
(-9.00E+05)
( 2.00E+05)
( 1.30E+06)
@end example

If you want hexadecimal integer output, you can use @command{printf}
to perform the conversion:

@example
$ printf '%x\n' `seq 1048575 1024 1050623`
fffff
1003ff
1007ff
@end example

For very long lists of numbers, use xargs to avoid
system limitations on the length of an argument list:

@example
$ seq 1000000 | xargs printf '%x\n' | tail -n 3
f423e
f423f
f4240
@end example

To generate octal output, use the printf @code{%o} format instead
of @code{%x}.

On most systems, seq can produce whole-number output for values up to
at least @code{2^53}.  Larger integers are approximated.  The details
differ depending on your floating-point implementation, but a common
case is that @command{seq} works with integers through @code{2^64},
and larger integers may not be numerically correct:

@example
$ seq 18446744073709551616 1 18446744073709551618
18446744073709551616
18446744073709551616
18446744073709551618
@end example

Be careful when using @command{seq} with a fractional @var{increment};
otherwise you may see surprising results.  Most people would expect to
see @code{0.000003} printed as the last number in this example:

@example
$ seq -s ' ' 0 0.000001 0.000003
0.000000 0.000001 0.000002
@end example

But that doesn't happen on many systems because @command{seq} is
implemented using binary floating point arithmetic (via the C
@code{long double} type)---which means decimal fractions like @code{0.000001}
cannot be represented exactly.  That in turn means some nonintuitive
conditions like @w{@code{0.000001 * 3 > 0.000003}} will end up being true.

To work around that in the above example, use a slightly larger number as
the @var{last} value:

@example
$ seq -s ' ' 0 0.000001 0.0000031
0.000000 0.000001 0.000002 0.000003
@end example

In general, when using an @var{increment} with a fractional part, where
(@var{last} - @var{first}) / @var{increment} is (mathematically) a whole
number, specify a slightly larger (or smaller, if @var{increment} is negative)
value for @var{last} to ensure that @var{last} is the final value printed
by seq.

@exitstatus


@node File permissions
@chapter File permissions
@include perm.texi

@include getdate.texi

@c              What's GNU?
@c              Arnold Robbins
@node Opening the software toolbox
@chapter Opening the Software Toolbox

An earlier version of this chapter appeared in
@uref{http://www.linuxjournal.com/article.php?sid=2762, the
@cite{What's GNU?} column of @cite{Linux Journal}, 2 (June, 1994)}.
It was written by Arnold Robbins.

@menu
* Toolbox introduction::        Toolbox introduction
* I/O redirection::             I/O redirection
* The who command::             The @command{who} command
* The cut command::             The @command{cut} command
* The sort command::            The @command{sort} command
* The uniq command::            The @command{uniq} command
* Putting the tools together::  Putting the tools together
@end menu


@node Toolbox introduction
@unnumberedsec Toolbox Introduction

This month's column is only peripherally related to the GNU Project, in
that it describes a number of the GNU tools on your GNU/Linux system and how they
might be used.  What it's really about is the ``Software Tools'' philosophy
of program development and usage.

The software tools philosophy was an important and integral concept
in the initial design and development of Unix (of which Linux and GNU are
essentially clones).  Unfortunately, in the modern day press of
Internetworking and flashy GUIs, it seems to have fallen by the
wayside.  This is a shame, since it provides a powerful mental model
for solving many kinds of problems.

Many people carry a Swiss Army knife around in their pants pockets (or
purse).  A Swiss Army knife is a handy tool to have: it has several knife
blades, a screwdriver, tweezers, toothpick, nail file, corkscrew, and perhaps
a number of other things on it.  For the everyday, small miscellaneous jobs
where you need a simple, general purpose tool, it's just the thing.

On the other hand, an experienced carpenter doesn't build a house using
a Swiss Army knife.  Instead, he has a toolbox chock full of specialized
tools---a saw, a hammer, a screwdriver, a plane, and so on.  And he knows
exactly when and where to use each tool; you won't catch him hammering nails
with the handle of his screwdriver.

The Unix developers at Bell Labs were all professional programmers and trained
computer scientists.  They had found that while a one-size-fits-all program
might appeal to a user because there's only one program to use, in practice
such programs are

@enumerate a
@item
difficult to write,

@item
difficult to maintain and
debug, and

@item
difficult to extend to meet new situations.
@end enumerate

Instead, they felt that programs should be specialized tools.  In short, each
program ``should do one thing well.''  No more and no less.  Such programs are
simpler to design, write, and get right---they only do one thing.

Furthermore, they found that with the right machinery for hooking programs
together, that the whole was greater than the sum of the parts.  By combining
several special purpose programs, you could accomplish a specific task
that none of the programs was designed for, and accomplish it much more
quickly and easily than if you had to write a special purpose program.
We will see some (classic) examples of this further on in the column.
(An important additional point was that, if necessary, take a detour
and build any software tools you may need first, if you don't already
have something appropriate in the toolbox.)

@node I/O redirection
@unnumberedsec I/O Redirection

Hopefully, you are familiar with the basics of I/O redirection in the
shell, in particular the concepts of ``standard input,'' ``standard output,''
and ``standard error''.  Briefly, ``standard input'' is a data source, where
data comes from.  A program should not need to either know or care if the
data source is a disk file, a keyboard, a magnetic tape, or even a punched
card reader.  Similarly, ``standard output'' is a data sink, where data goes
to.  The program should neither know nor care where this might be.
Programs that only read their standard input, do something to the data,
and then send it on, are called @dfn{filters}, by analogy to filters in a
water pipeline.

With the Unix shell, it's very easy to set up data pipelines:

@smallexample
program_to_create_data | filter1 | ... | filterN > final.pretty.data
@end smallexample

We start out by creating the raw data; each filter applies some successive
transformation to the data, until by the time it comes out of the pipeline,
it is in the desired form.

This is fine and good for standard input and standard output.  Where does the
standard error come in to play?  Well, think about @command{filter1} in
the pipeline above.  What happens if it encounters an error in the data it
sees?  If it writes an error message to standard output, it will just
disappear down the pipeline into @command{filter2}'s input, and the
user will probably never see it.  So programs need a place where they can send
error messages so that the user will notice them.  This is standard error,
and it is usually connected to your console or window, even if you have
redirected standard output of your program away from your screen.

For filter programs to work together, the format of the data has to be
agreed upon.  The most straightforward and easiest format to use is simply
lines of text.  Unix data files are generally just streams of bytes, with
lines delimited by the @acronym{ASCII} @sc{lf} (Line Feed) character,
conventionally called a ``newline'' in the Unix literature.  (This is
@code{'\n'} if you're a C programmer.)  This is the format used by all
the traditional filtering programs.  (Many earlier operating systems
had elaborate facilities and special purpose programs for managing
binary data.  Unix has always shied away from such things, under the
philosophy that it's easiest to simply be able to view and edit your
data with a text editor.)

OK, enough introduction.  Let's take a look at some of the tools, and then
we'll see how to hook them together in interesting ways.   In the following
discussion, we will only present those command line options that interest
us.  As you should always do, double check your system documentation
for the full story.

@node The who command
@unnumberedsec The @command{who} Command

The first program is the @command{who} command.  By itself, it generates a
list of the users who are currently logged in.  Although I'm writing
this on a single-user system, we'll pretend that several people are
logged in:

@example
$ who
@print{} arnold   console Jan 22 19:57
@print{} miriam   ttyp0   Jan 23 14:19(:0.0)
@print{} bill     ttyp1   Jan 21 09:32(:0.0)
@print{} arnold   ttyp2   Jan 23 20:48(:0.0)
@end example

Here, the @samp{$} is the usual shell prompt, at which I typed @samp{who}.
There are three people logged in, and I am logged in twice.  On traditional
Unix systems, user names are never more than eight characters long.  This
little bit of trivia will be useful later.  The output of @command{who} is nice,
but the data is not all that exciting.

@node The cut command
@unnumberedsec The @command{cut} Command

The next program we'll look at is the @command{cut} command.  This program
cuts out columns or fields of input data.  For example, we can tell it
to print just the login name and full name from the @file{/etc/passwd}
file.  The @file{/etc/passwd} file has seven fields, separated by
colons:

@example
arnold:xyzzy:2076:10:Arnold D. Robbins:/home/arnold:/bin/bash
@end example

To get the first and fifth fields, we would use @command{cut} like this:

@example
$ cut -d: -f1,5 /etc/passwd
@print{} root:Operator
@dots{}
@print{} arnold:Arnold D. Robbins
@print{} miriam:Miriam A. Robbins
@dots{}
@end example

With the @option{-c} option, @command{cut} will cut out specific characters
(i.e., columns) in the input lines.  This is useful for input data
that has fixed width fields, and does not have a field separator.  For
example, list the Monday dates for the current month:

@c Is using cal ok?  Looked at gcal, but I don't like it.
@example
$ cal | cut -c 3-5
@print{}Mo
@print{}
@print{}  6
@print{} 13
@print{} 20
@print{} 27
@end example

@node The sort command
@unnumberedsec The @command{sort} Command

Next we'll look at the @command{sort} command.  This is one of the most
powerful commands on a Unix-style system; one that you will often find
yourself using when setting up fancy data plumbing.

The @command{sort}
command reads and sorts each file named on the command line.  It then
merges the sorted data and writes it to standard output.  It will read
standard input if no files are given on the command line (thus
making it into a filter).  The sort is based on the character collating
sequence or based on user-supplied ordering criteria.


@node The uniq command
@unnumberedsec The @command{uniq} Command

Finally (at least for now), we'll look at the @command{uniq} program.  When
sorting data, you will often end up with duplicate lines, lines that
are identical.  Usually, all you need is one instance of each line.
This is where @command{uniq} comes in.  The @command{uniq} program reads its
standard input.  It prints only one
copy of each repeated line.  It does have several options.  Later on,
we'll use the @option{-c} option, which prints each unique line, preceded
by a count of the number of times that line occurred in the input.


@node Putting the tools together
@unnumberedsec Putting the Tools Together

Now, let's suppose this is a large ISP server system with dozens of users
logged in.  The management wants the system administrator to write a program that will
generate a sorted list of logged in users.  Furthermore, even if a user
is logged in multiple times, his or her name should only show up in the
output once.

The administrator could sit down with the system documentation and write a C
program that did this.  It would take perhaps a couple of hundred lines
of code and about two hours to write it, test it, and debug it.
However, knowing the software toolbox, the administrator can instead start out
by generating just a list of logged on users:

@example
$ who | cut -c1-8
@print{} arnold
@print{} miriam
@print{} bill
@print{} arnold
@end example

Next, sort the list:

@example
$ who | cut -c1-8 | sort
@print{} arnold
@print{} arnold
@print{} bill
@print{} miriam
@end example

Finally, run the sorted list through @command{uniq}, to weed out duplicates:

@example
$ who | cut -c1-8 | sort | uniq
@print{} arnold
@print{} bill
@print{} miriam
@end example

The @command{sort} command actually has a @option{-u} option that does what
@command{uniq} does.  However, @command{uniq} has other uses for which one
cannot substitute @samp{sort -u}.

The administrator puts this pipeline into a shell script, and makes it available for
all the users on the system (@samp{#} is the system administrator,
or @code{root}, prompt):

@example
# cat > /usr/local/bin/listusers
who | cut -c1-8 | sort | uniq
^D
# chmod +x /usr/local/bin/listusers
@end example

There are four major points to note here.  First, with just four
programs, on one command line, the administrator was able to save about two
hours worth of work.  Furthermore, the shell pipeline is just about as
efficient as the C program would be, and it is much more efficient in
terms of programmer time.  People time is much more expensive than
computer time, and in our modern ``there's never enough time to do
everything'' society, saving two hours of programmer time is no mean
feat.

Second, it is also important to emphasize that with the
@emph{combination} of the tools, it is possible to do a special
purpose job never imagined by the authors of the individual programs.

Third, it is also valuable to build up your pipeline in stages, as we did here.
This allows you to view the data at each stage in the pipeline, which helps
you acquire the confidence that you are indeed using these tools correctly.

Finally, by bundling the pipeline in a shell script, other users can use
your command, without having to remember the fancy plumbing you set up for
them.  In terms of how you run them, shell scripts and compiled programs are
indistinguishable.

After the previous warm-up exercise, we'll look at two additional, more
complicated pipelines.  For them, we need to introduce two more tools.

The first is the @command{tr} command, which stands for ``transliterate.''
The @command{tr} command works on a character-by-character basis, changing
characters.  Normally it is used for things like mapping upper case to
lower case:

@example
$ echo ThIs ExAmPlE HaS MIXED case! | tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]'
@print{} this example has mixed case!
@end example

There are several options of interest:

@table @code
@item -c
work on the complement of the listed characters, i.e.,
operations apply to characters not in the given set

@item -d
delete characters in the first set from the output

@item -s
squeeze repeated characters in the output into just one character.
@end table

We will be using all three options in a moment.

The other command we'll look at is @command{comm}.  The @command{comm}
command takes two sorted input files as input data, and prints out the
files' lines in three columns.  The output columns are the data lines
unique to the first file, the data lines unique to the second file, and
the data lines that are common to both.  The @option{-1}, @option{-2}, and
@option{-3} command line options @emph{omit} the respective columns.  (This is
non-intuitive and takes a little getting used to.)  For example:

@example
$ cat f1
@print{} 11111
@print{} 22222
@print{} 33333
@print{} 44444
$ cat f2
@print{} 00000
@print{} 22222
@print{} 33333
@print{} 55555
$ comm f1 f2
@print{}         00000
@print{} 11111
@print{}                 22222
@print{}                 33333
@print{} 44444
@print{}         55555
@end example

The file name @file{-} tells @command{comm} to read standard input
instead of a regular file.

Now we're ready to build a fancy pipeline.  The first application is a word
frequency counter.  This helps an author determine if he or she is over-using
certain words.

The first step is to change the case of all the letters in our input file
to one case.  ``The'' and ``the'' are the same word when doing counting.

@example
$ tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' < whats.gnu | ...
@end example

The next step is to get rid of punctuation.  Quoted words and unquoted words
should be treated identically; it's easiest to just get the punctuation out of
the way.

@smallexample
$ tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[:alnum:]_ \n' | ...
@end smallexample

The second @command{tr} command operates on the complement of the listed
characters, which are all the letters, the digits, the underscore, and
the blank.  The @samp{\n} represents the newline character; it has to
be left alone.  (The @acronym{ASCII} tab character should also be included for
good measure in a production script.)

At this point, we have data consisting of words separated by blank space.
The words only contain alphanumeric characters (and the underscore).  The
next step is break the data apart so that we have one word per line.  This
makes the counting operation much easier, as we will see shortly.

@smallexample
$ tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[:alnum:]_ \n' |
> tr -s ' ' '\n' | ...
@end smallexample

This command turns blanks into newlines.  The @option{-s} option squeezes
multiple newline characters in the output into just one.  This helps us
avoid blank lines.  (The @samp{>} is the shell's ``secondary prompt.''
This is what the shell prints when it notices you haven't finished
typing in all of a command.)

We now have data consisting of one word per line, no punctuation, all one
case.  We're ready to count each word:

@smallexample
$ tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[:alnum:]_ \n' |
> tr -s ' ' '\n' | sort | uniq -c | ...
@end smallexample

At this point, the data might look something like this:

@example
     60 a
      2 able
      6 about
      1 above
      2 accomplish
      1 acquire
      1 actually
      2 additional
@end example

The output is sorted by word, not by count!  What we want is the most
frequently used words first.  Fortunately, this is easy to accomplish,
with the help of two more @command{sort} options:

@table @code
@item -n
do a numeric sort, not a textual one

@item -r
reverse the order of the sort
@end table

The final pipeline looks like this:

@smallexample
$ tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[:alnum:]_ \n' |
> tr -s ' ' '\n' | sort | uniq -c | sort -n -r
@print{}    156 the
@print{}     60 a
@print{}     58 to
@print{}     51 of
@print{}     51 and
@dots{}
@end smallexample

Whew!  That's a lot to digest.  Yet, the same principles apply.  With six
commands, on two lines (really one long one split for convenience), we've
created a program that does something interesting and useful, in much
less time than we could have written a C program to do the same thing.

A minor modification to the above pipeline can give us a simple spelling
checker!  To determine if you've spelled a word correctly, all you have to
do is look it up in a dictionary.  If it is not there, then chances are
that your spelling is incorrect.  So, we need a dictionary.
The conventional location for a dictionary is @file{/usr/dict/words}.
On my GNU/Linux system,@footnote{Redhat Linux 6.1, for the November 2000
revision of this article.}
this is a is a sorted, 45,402 word dictionary.

Now, how to compare our file with the dictionary?  As before, we generate
a sorted list of words, one per line:

@smallexample
$ tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[:alnum:]_ \n' |
> tr -s ' ' '\n' | sort -u | ...
@end smallexample

Now, all we need is a list of words that are @emph{not} in the
dictionary.  Here is where the @command{comm} command comes in.

@smallexample
$ tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[:alnum:]_ \n' |
> tr -s ' ' '\n' | sort -u |
> comm -23 - /usr/dict/words
@end smallexample

The @option{-2} and @option{-3} options eliminate lines that are only in the
dictionary (the second file), and lines that are in both files.  Lines
only in the first file (standard input, our stream of words), are
words that are not in the dictionary.  These are likely candidates for
spelling errors.  This pipeline was the first cut at a production
spelling checker on Unix.

There are some other tools that deserve brief mention.

@table @command
@item grep
search files for text that matches a regular expression

@item wc
count lines, words, characters

@item tee
a T-fitting for data pipes, copies data to files and to standard output

@item sed
the stream editor, an advanced tool

@item awk
a data manipulation language, another advanced tool
@end table

The software tools philosophy also espoused the following bit of
advice: ``Let someone else do the hard part.''  This means, take
something that gives you most of what you need, and then massage it the
rest of the way until it's in the form that you want.

To summarize:

@enumerate 1
@item
Each program should do one thing well.  No more, no less.

@item
Combining programs with appropriate plumbing leads to results where
the whole is greater than the sum of the parts.  It also leads to novel
uses of programs that the authors might never have imagined.

@item
Programs should never print extraneous header or trailer data, since these
could get sent on down a pipeline.  (A point we didn't mention earlier.)

@item
Let someone else do the hard part.

@item
Know your toolbox!  Use each program appropriately.  If you don't have an
appropriate tool, build one.
@end enumerate

As of this writing, all the programs we've discussed are available via
anonymous @command{ftp} from: @*
@uref{ftp://gnudist.gnu.org/textutils/textutils-1.22.tar.gz}.  (There may
be more recent versions available now.)

None of what I have presented in this column is new.  The Software Tools
philosophy was first introduced in the book @cite{Software Tools}, by
Brian Kernighan and P.J. Plauger (Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-03669-X).
This book showed how to write and use software tools.  It was written in
1976, using a preprocessor for FORTRAN named @command{ratfor} (RATional
FORtran).  At the time, C was not as ubiquitous as it is now; FORTRAN
was.  The last chapter presented a @command{ratfor} to FORTRAN
processor, written in @command{ratfor}.  @command{ratfor} looks an awful
lot like C; if you know C, you won't have any problem following the
code.

In 1981, the book was updated and made available as @cite{Software Tools
in Pascal} (Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-10342-7).  Both books are
still in print and are well worth
reading if you're a programmer.  They certainly made a major change in
how I view programming.

The programs in both books are available from
@uref{http://cm.bell-labs.com/who/bwk, Brian Kernighan's home page}.
For a number of years, there was an active
Software Tools Users Group, whose members had ported the original
@command{ratfor} programs to essentially every computer system with a
FORTRAN compiler.  The popularity of the group waned in the middle 1980s
as Unix began to spread beyond universities.

With the current proliferation of GNU code and other clones of Unix programs,
these programs now receive little attention; modern C versions are
much more efficient and do more than these programs do.  Nevertheless, as
exposition of good programming style, and evangelism for a still-valuable
philosophy, these books are unparalleled, and I recommend them highly.

Acknowledgment: I would like to express my gratitude to Brian Kernighan
of Bell Labs, the original Software Toolsmith, for reviewing this column.

@node Copying This Manual
@appendix Copying This Manual

@menu
* GNU Free Documentation License::  License for copying this manual.
@end menu

@include fdl.texi

@node Index
@unnumbered Index

@printindex cp

@shortcontents
@contents
@bye

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