path: root/lang/python/doc/texinfo/gpgme-python-howto.texi

\input texinfo    @c -*- texinfo -*-
@c %**start of header
@setfilename gpgme-python-howto.info
@settitle GNU Privacy Guard (GnuPG) Made Easy Python Bindings HOWTO (English)
@documentencoding UTF-8
@documentlanguage en
@c %**end of header

@finalout
@titlepage
@title GNU Privacy Guard (GnuPG) Made Easy Python Bindings HOWTO (English)
@author Ben McGinnes
@end titlepage

@contents

@ifnottex
@node Top
@top GNU Privacy Guard (GnuPG) Made Easy Python Bindings HOWTO (English)
@end ifnottex

@menu
* Introduction::
* GPGME Concepts::
* GPGME Python bindings installation::
* Fundamentals::
* Working with keys::
* Basic Functions::
* Creating keys and subkeys::
* Advanced or Experimental Use Cases::
* Miscellaneous extras and work-arounds::
* Copyright and Licensing::

@detailmenu
--- The Detailed Node Listing ---

Introduction

* Python 2 versus Python 3::
* Examples::
* Unofficial Drafts::
* What's New::

What's New

* New in GPGME 1·12·0::

GPGME Concepts

* A C API::
* Python bindings::
* Difference between the Python bindings and other GnuPG Python packages::

Difference between the Python bindings and other GnuPG Python packages

* The python-gnupg package maintained by Vinay Sajip::
* The gnupg package created and maintained by Isis Lovecruft::
* The PyME package maintained by Martin Albrecht::

GPGME Python bindings installation

* No PyPI::
* Requirements::
* Installation::
* Known Issues::

Requirements

* Recommended Additions::

Installation

* Installing GPGME::

Known Issues

* Breaking Builds::
* Reinstalling Responsibly::
* Multiple installations::
* Won't Work With Windows::
* CFFI is the Best™ and GPGME should use it instead of SWIG::
* Virtualised Environments::

Fundamentals

* No REST::
* Context::

Working with keys

* Key selection::
* Get key::
* Importing keys::
* Exporting keys::

Key selection

* Counting keys::

Importing keys

* Working with ProtonMail::
* Importing with HKP for Python::
* Importing from ProtonMail with HKP for Python::

Exporting keys

* Exporting public keys::
* Exporting secret keys::
* Sending public keys to the SKS Keyservers::

Basic Functions

* Encryption::
* Decryption::
* Signing text and files::
* Signature verification::

Encryption

* Encrypting to one key::
* Encrypting to multiple keys::

Signing text and files

* Signing key selection::
* Normal or default signing messages or files::
* Detached signing messages and files::
* Clearsigning messages or text::

Creating keys and subkeys

* Primary key::
* Subkeys::
* User IDs::
* Key certification::

User IDs

* Adding User IDs::
* Revokinging User IDs::

Advanced or Experimental Use Cases

* C plus Python plus SWIG plus Cython::

Miscellaneous extras and work-arounds

* Group lines::
* Keyserver access for Python::

Keyserver access for Python

* Key import format::

Copyright and Licensing

* Copyright::
* Draft Editions of this HOWTO::
* License GPL compatible::

@end detailmenu
@end menu

@node Introduction
@chapter Introduction

@multitable {aaaaaaaaaaaaaaa} {aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa}
@item Version:
@tab 0.1.4
@item GPGME Version:
@tab 1.12.0
@item Author:
@tab @uref{https://gnupg.org/people/index.html#sec-1-5, Ben McGinnes} <ben@@gnupg.org>
@item Author GPG Key:
@tab DB4724E6FA4286C92B4E55C4321E4E2373590E5D
@item Language:
@tab Australian English, British English
@item xml:lang:
@tab en-AU, en-GB, en
@end multitable

This document provides basic instruction in how to use the GPGME
Python bindings to programmatically leverage the GPGME library.

@menu
* Python 2 versus Python 3::
* Examples::
* Unofficial Drafts::
* What's New::
@end menu

@node Python 2 versus Python 3
@section Python 2 versus Python 3

Though the GPGME Python bindings themselves provide support for both
Python 2 and 3, the focus is unequivocally on Python 3 and
specifically from Python 3.4 and above.  As a consequence all the
examples and instructions in this guide use Python 3 code.

Much of it will work with Python 2, but much of it also deals with
Python 3 byte literals, particularly when reading and writing data.
Developers concentrating on Python 2.7, and possibly even 2.6, will
need to make the appropriate modifications to support the older string
and unicode types as opposed to bytes.

There are multiple reasons for concentrating on Python 3; some of
which relate to the immediate integration of these bindings, some of
which relate to longer term plans for both GPGME and the python
bindings and some of which relate to the impending EOL period for
Python 2.7.  Essentially, though, there is little value in tying the
bindings to a version of the language which is a dead end and the
advantages offered by Python 3 over Python 2 make handling the data
types with which GPGME deals considerably easier.

@node Examples
@section Examples

All of the examples found in this document can be found as Python 3
scripts in the @samp{lang/python/examples/howto} directory.

@node Unofficial Drafts
@section Unofficial Drafts

In addition to shipping with each release of GPGME, there is a section
on locations to read or download @ref{Draft Editions of this HOWTO, , draft editions} of this document from
at the end of it.  These are unofficial versions produced in between
major releases.

@node What's New
@section What's New

The most obviously new point for those reading this guide is this
section on other new things, but that's hardly important.  Not given
all the other things which spurred the need for adding this section
and its subsections.

@menu
* New in GPGME 1·12·0::
@end menu

@node New in GPGME 1·12·0
@subsection New in GPGME 1·12·0

There have been quite a number of additions to GPGME and the Python
bindings to it since the last release of GPGME with versions 1.11.0
and 1.11.1 in April, 2018.

The bullet points of new additiions are:

@itemize
@item
an expanded section on @ref{Installation, , installing} and @ref{Known Issues, , troubleshooting} the Python
bindings.
@item
The release of Python 3.7.0; which appears to be working just fine
with our bindings, in spite of intermittent reports of problems for
many other Python projects with that new release.
@item
Python 3.7 has been moved to the head of the specified python
versions list in the build process.
@item
In order to fix some other issues, there are certain underlying
functions which are more exposed through the @ref{Context, , gpg.Context()}, but
ongoing documentation ought to clarify that or otherwise provide the
best means of using the bindings.  Some additions to @samp{gpg.core} and
the @samp{Context()}, however, were intended (see below).
@item
Continuing work in identifying and confirming the cause of
oft-reported @ref{Won't Work With Windows, , problems installing the Python bindings on Windows}.
@item
GSOC: Google's Surreptitiously Ordered Conscription @dots{} erm @dots{} oh,
right; Google's Summer of Code.  Though there were two hopeful
candidates this year; only one ended up involved with the GnuPG
Project directly, the other concentrated on an unrelated third party
project with closer ties to one of the GNU/Linux distributions than
to the GnuPG Project.  Thus the Python bindings benefited from GSOC
participant Jacob Adams, who added the key@math{_import} function; building
on prior work by Tobias Mueller.
@item
Several new methods functions were added to the gpg.Context(),
including: @ref{Importing keys, , key@math{_import}}, @ref{Exporting keys, , key@math{_export}}, @ref{Exporting public keys, , key@math{_export}@math{_minimal}} and
@ref{Exporting secret keys, , key@math{_export}@math{_secret}}.
@item
Importing and exporting examples include versions integrated with
Marcel Fest's recently released @uref{https://github.com/Selfnet/hkp4py, HKP for Python} module.  Some
@ref{Keyserver access for Python, , additional notes on this module} are included at the end of the HOWTO.
@item
Instructions for dealing with semi-walled garden implementations
like ProtonMail are also included.  This is intended to make things
a little easier when communicating with users of ProtonMail's
services and should not be construed as an endorsement of said
service.  The GnuPG Project neither favours, nor disfavours
ProtonMail and the majority of this deals with interacting with the
ProtonMail keyserver.
@item
Semi-formalised the location where @ref{Draft Editions of this HOWTO, , draft versions} of this HOWTO may
periodically be accessible.  This is both for the reference of
others and testing the publishing of the document itself.  Renamed
this file at around the same time.
@item
The Texinfo documentation build configuration has been replicated
from the parent project in order to make to maintain consistency
with that project (and actually ship with each release).
@item
a reStructuredText (@samp{.rst}) version is also generated for Python
developers more used to and comfortable with that format as it is
the standard Python documentation format and Python developers may
wish to use it with Sphinx.  Please note that there has been no
testing of the reStructuredText version with Sphinx at all.  The
reST file was generated by the simple expedient of using @uref{https://pandoc.org/, Pandoc}.
@item
Added a new section for @ref{Advanced or Experimental Use Cases, , advanced or experimental use}.
@item
Began the advanced use cases with @ref{C plus Python plus SWIG plus Cython, , a section} on using the module with
@uref{http://cython.org/, Cython}.
@item
Added a number of new scripts to the @samp{example/howto/} directory;
some of which may be in advance of their planned sections of the
HOWTO (and some are just there because it seemed like a good idea at
the time).
@item
Cleaned up a lot of things under the hood.
@end itemize

@node GPGME Concepts
@chapter GPGME Concepts

@menu
* A C API::
* Python bindings::
* Difference between the Python bindings and other GnuPG Python packages::
@end menu

@node A C API
@section A C API

Unlike many modern APIs with which programmers will be more familiar
with these days, the GPGME API is a C API.  The API is intended for
use by C coders who would be able to access its features by including
the @samp{gpgme.h} header file with their own C source code and then access
its functions just as they would any other C headers.

This is a very effective method of gaining complete access to the API
and in the most efficient manner possible.  It does, however, have the
drawback that it cannot be directly used by other languages without
some means of providing an interface to those languages.  This is
where the need for bindings in various languages stems.

@node Python bindings
@section Python bindings

The Python bindings for GPGME provide a higher level means of
accessing the complete feature set of GPGME itself.  It also provides
a more pythonic means of calling these API functions.

The bindings are generated dynamically with SWIG and the copy of
@samp{gpgme.h} generated when GPGME is compiled.

This means that a version of the Python bindings is fundamentally tied
to the exact same version of GPGME used to generate that copy of
@samp{gpgme.h}.

@node Difference between the Python bindings and other GnuPG Python packages
@section Difference between the Python bindings and other GnuPG Python packages

There have been numerous attempts to add GnuPG support to Python over
the years.  Some of the most well known are listed here, along with
what differentiates them.

@menu
* The python-gnupg package maintained by Vinay Sajip::
* The gnupg package created and maintained by Isis Lovecruft::
* The PyME package maintained by Martin Albrecht::
@end menu

@node The python-gnupg package maintained by Vinay Sajip
@subsection The python-gnupg package maintained by Vinay Sajip

This is arguably the most popular means of integrating GPG with
Python.  The package utilises the @samp{subprocess} module to implement
wrappers for the @samp{gpg} and @samp{gpg2} executables normally invoked on the
command line (@samp{gpg.exe} and @samp{gpg2.exe} on Windows).

The popularity of this package stemmed from its ease of use and
capability in providing the most commonly required features.

Unfortunately it has been beset by a number of security issues in the
past; most of which stemmed from using unsafe methods of accessing the
command line via the @samp{subprocess} calls.  While some effort has been
made over the last two to three years (as of 2018) to mitigate this,
particularly by no longer providing shell access through those
subprocess calls, the wrapper is still somewhat limited in the scope
of its GnuPG features coverage.

The python-gnupg package is available under the MIT license.

@node The gnupg package created and maintained by Isis Lovecruft
@subsection The gnupg package created and maintained by Isis Lovecruft

In 2015 Isis Lovecruft from the Tor Project forked and then
re-implemented the python-gnupg package as just gnupg.  This new
package also relied on subprocess to call the @samp{gpg} or @samp{gpg2}
binaries, but did so somewhat more securely.

The naming and version numbering selected for this package, however,
resulted in conflicts with the original python-gnupg and since its
functions were called in a different manner to python-gnupg, the
release of this package also resulted in a great deal of consternation
when people installed what they thought was an upgrade that
subsequently broke the code relying on it.

The gnupg package is available under the GNU General Public License
version 3.0 (or any later version).

@node The PyME package maintained by Martin Albrecht
@subsection The PyME package maintained by Martin Albrecht

This package is the origin of these bindings, though they are somewhat
different now.  For details of when and how the PyME package was
folded back into GPGME itself see the @uref{short-history.org, Short History} document.@footnote{@samp{short-history.org} and/or @samp{short-history.html}.}

The PyME package was first released in 2002 and was also the first
attempt to implement a low level binding to GPGME.  In doing so it
provided access to considerably more functionality than either the
@samp{python-gnupg} or @samp{gnupg} packages.

The PyME package is only available for Python 2.6 and 2.7.

Porting the PyME package to Python 3.4 in 2015 is what resulted in it
being folded into the GPGME project and the current bindings are the
end result of that effort.

The PyME package is available under the same dual licensing as GPGME
itself: the GNU General Public License version 2.0 (or any later
version) and the GNU Lesser General Public License version 2.1 (or any
later version).

@node GPGME Python bindings installation
@chapter GPGME Python bindings installation

@menu
* No PyPI::
* Requirements::
* Installation::
* Known Issues::
@end menu

@node No PyPI
@section No PyPI

Most third-party Python packages and modules are available and
distributed through the Python Package Installer, known as PyPI.

Due to the nature of what these bindings are and how they work, it is
infeasible to install the GPGME Python bindings in the same way.

This is because the bindings use SWIG to dynamically generate C
bindings against @samp{gpgme.h} and @samp{gpgme.h} is generated from
@samp{gpgme.h.in} at compile time when GPGME is built from source.  Thus to
include a package in PyPI which actually built correctly would require
either statically built libraries for every architecture bundled with
it or a full implementation of C for each architecture.

See the additional notes regarding @ref{CFFI is the Best™ and GPGME should use it instead of SWIG, , CFFI and SWIG} at the end of this
section for further details.

@node Requirements
@section Requirements

The GPGME Python bindings only have three requirements:

@enumerate
@item
A suitable version of Python 2 or Python 3.  With Python 2 that
means CPython 2.7 and with Python 3 that means CPython 3.4 or
higher.
@item
@uref{https://www.swig.org, SWIG}.
@item
GPGME itself.  Which also means that all of GPGME's dependencies
must be installed too.
@end enumerate

@menu
* Recommended Additions::
@end menu

@node Recommended Additions
@subsection Recommended Additions

Though none of the following are absolute requirements, they are all
recommended for use with the Python bindings.  In some cases these
recommendations refer to which version(s) of CPython to use the
bindings with, while others refer to third party modules which provide
a significant advantage in some way.

@enumerate
@item
If possible, use Python 3 instead of 2.
@item
Favour a more recent version of Python since even 3.4 is due to
reach EOL soon.  In production systems and services, Python 3.6
should be robust enough to be relied on.
@item
If possible add the following Python modules which are not part of
the standard library: @uref{http://docs.python-requests.org/en/latest/index.html, Requests}, @uref{http://cython.org/, Cython} and @uref{https://github.com/Selfnet/hkp4py, hkp4py}.  Chances are
quite high that at least the first one and maybe two of those will
already be installed.
@end enumerate

Note that, as with Cython, some of the planned additions to the
@ref{Advanced or Experimental Use Cases, , Advanced} section, will bring with them additional requirements.  Most
of these will be fairly well known and commonly installed ones,
however, which are in many cases likely to have already been installed
on many systems or be familiar to Python programmers.

@node Installation
@section Installation

Installing the Python bindings is effectively achieved by compiling
and installing GPGME itself.

Once SWIG is installed with Python and all the dependencies for GPGME
are installed you only need to confirm that the version(s) of Python
you want the bindings installed for are in your @samp{$PATH}.

By default GPGME will attempt to install the bindings for the most
recent or highest version number of Python 2 and Python 3 it detects
in @samp{$PATH}.  It specifically checks for the @samp{python} and @samp{python3}
executables first and then checks for specific version numbers.

For Python 2 it checks for these executables in this order: @samp{python},
@samp{python2} and @samp{python2.7}.

For Python 3 it checks for these executables in this order: @samp{python3},
 @samp{python3.7}, @samp{python3.6}, @samp{python3.5} and @samp{python3.4}.@footnote{With no issues reported specific to Python 3.7, the release of
Python 3.7.1 at around the same time as GPGME 1.12.0 and the testing
with Python 3.7.1rc1, there is no reason to delay moving 3.7 ahead of
3.6 now.  Production environments with more conservative requirements
will always enforce their own policies anyway and installation to each
supported minor release is quite possible too.}

On systems where @samp{python} is actually @samp{python3} and not @samp{python2} it
may be possible that @samp{python2} may be overlooked, but there have been
no reports of that actually occurring as yet.

In the three months or so since the release of Python 3.7.0 there has
been extensive testing and work with these bindings with no issues
specifically relating to the new version of Python or any of the new
features of either the language or the bindings.  This has also been
the case with Python 3.7.1rc1.  With that in mind and given the
release of Python 3.7.1 is scheduled for around the same time as GPGME
1.12.0, the order of preferred Python versions has been changed to
move Python 3.7 ahead of Python 3.6.

@menu
* Installing GPGME::
@end menu

@node Installing GPGME
@subsection Installing GPGME

See the GPGME @samp{README} file for details of how to install GPGME from
source.

@node Known Issues
@section Known Issues

There are a few known issues with the current build process and the
Python bindings.  For the most part these are easily addressed should
they be encountered.

@menu
* Breaking Builds::
* Reinstalling Responsibly::
* Multiple installations::
* Won't Work With Windows::
* CFFI is the Best™ and GPGME should use it instead of SWIG::
* Virtualised Environments::
@end menu

@node Breaking Builds
@subsection Breaking Builds

Occasionally when installing GPGME with the Python bindings included
it may be observed that the @samp{make} portion of that process induces a
large very number of warnings and, eventually errors which end that
part of the build process.  Yet following that with @samp{make check} and
@samp{make install} appears to work seamlessly.

The cause of this is related to the way SWIG needs to be called to
dynamically generate the C bindings for GPGME in the first place.  So
the entire process will always produce @samp{lang/python/python2-gpg/} and
@samp{lang/python/python3-gpg/} directories.  These should contain the
build output generated during compilation, including the complete
bindings and module installed into @samp{site-packages}.

Occasionally the errors in the early part or some other conflict
(e.g. not installing as @strong{@emph{root}} or @strong{@emph{su}}) may result in nothing
being installed to the relevant @samp{site-packages} directory and the
build directory missing a lot of expected files.  Even when this
occurs, the solution is actually quite simple and will always work.

That solution is simply to run the following commands as either the
@strong{root} user or prepended with @samp{sudo -H}@footnote{Yes, even if you use virtualenv with everything you do in
Python.  If you want to install this module as just your user account
then you will need to manually configure, compile and install the
@emph{entire} GnuPG stack as that user as well.  This includes libraries
which are not often installed that way.  It can be done and there are
circumstances under which it is worthwhile, but generally only on
POSIX systems which utilise single user mode (some even require it).} in the @samp{lang/python/}
directory:

@example
/path/to/pythonX.Y setup.py build
/path/to/pythonX.Y setup.py build
/path/to/pythonX.Y setup.py install
@end example

Yes, the build command does need to be run twice.  Yes, you still need
to run the potentially failing or incomplete steps during the
@samp{configure}, @samp{make} and @samp{make install} steps with installing GPGME.
This is because those steps generate a lot of essential files needed,
both by and in order to create, the bindings (including both the
@samp{setup.py} and @samp{gpgme.h} files).

@enumerate
@item
IMPORTANT Note


If specifying a selected number of languages to create bindings for,
try to leave Python last.  Currently the majority of the other
language bindings are also preceding Python of either version when
listed alphabetically and so that just happens by default currently.

If Python is set to precede one of the other languages then it is
possible that the errors described here may interrupt the build
process before generating bindings for those other languages.  In
these cases it may be preferable to configure all preferred language
bindings separately with alternative @samp{configure} steps for GPGME using
the @samp{--enable-languages=$LANGUAGE} option.
@end enumerate

@node Reinstalling Responsibly
@subsection Reinstalling Responsibly

Regardless of whether you're installing for one version of Python or
several, there will come a point where reinstallation is required.
With most Python module installations, the installed files go into the
relevant site-packages directory and are then forgotten about.  Then
the module is upgraded, the new files are copied over the old and
that's the end of the matter.

While the same is true of these bindings, there have been intermittent
issues observed on some platforms which have benefited significantly
from removing all the previous installations of the bindings before
installing the updated versions.

Removing the previous version(s) is simply a matter of changing to the
relevant @samp{site-packages} directory for the version of Python in
question and removing the @samp{gpg/} directory and any accompanying
egg-info files for that module.

In most cases this will require root or administration privileges on
the system, but the same is true of installing the module in the first
place.

@node Multiple installations
@subsection Multiple installations

For a veriety of reasons it may be either necessary or just preferable
to install the bindings to alternative installed Python versions which
meet the requirements of these bindings.

On POSIX systems this will generally be most simply achieved by
running the manual installation commands (build, build, install) as
described in the previous section for each Python installation the
bindings need to be installed to.

As per the SWIG documentation: the compilers, libraries and runtime
used to build GPGME and the Python Bindings @strong{must} match those used to
compile Python itself, including the version number(s) (at least going
by major version numbers and probably minor numbers too).

On most POSIX systems, including OS X, this will very likely be the
case in most, if not all, cases.

@node Won't Work With Windows
@subsection Won't Work With Windows

There are semi-regular reports of Windows users having considerable
difficulty in installing and using the Python bindings at all.  Very
often, possibly even always, these reports come from Cygwin users
and/or MinGW users and/or Msys2 users.  Though not all of them have
been confirmed, it appears that these reports have also come from
people who installed Python using the Windows installer files from the
@uref{https://python.org, Python website} (i.e. mostly MSI installers, sometimes self-extracting
@samp{.exe} files).

The Windows versions of Python are not built using Cygwin, MinGW or
Msys2; they're built using Microsoft Visual Studio.  Furthermore the
version used is @emph{considerably} more advanced than the version which
MinGW obtained a small number of files from many years ago in order to
be able to compile anything at all.  Not only that, but there are
changes to the version of Visual Studio between some micro releases,
though that is is particularly the case with Python 2.7, since it has
been kept around far longer than it should have been.

There are two theoretical solutions to this issue:

@enumerate
@item
Compile and install the GnuPG stack, including GPGME and the
Python bibdings using the same version of Microsoft Visual Studio
used by the Python Foundation to compile the version of Python
installed.

If there are multiple versions of Python then this will need to be
done with each different version of Visual Studio used.

@item
Compile and install Python using the same tools used by choice,
such as MinGW or Msys2.
@end enumerate

Do @strong{not} use the official Windows installer for Python unless
following the first method.

In this type of situation it may even be for the best to accept that
there are less limitations on permissive software than free software
and simply opt to use a recent version of the Community Edition of
Microsoft Visual Studio to compile and build all of it, no matter
what.

Investigations into the extent or the limitations of this issue are
ongoing.

@node CFFI is the Best™ and GPGME should use it instead of SWIG
@subsection CFFI is the Best™ and GPGME should use it instead of SWIG

There are many reasons for favouring @uref{https://cffi.readthedocs.io/en/latest/overview.html, CFFI} and proponents of it are
quite happy to repeat these things as if all it would take to switch
from SWIG to CFFI is repeating that list as if it were a new concept.

The fact is that there are things which Python's CFFI implementation
cannot handle in the GPGME C code.  Beyond that there are features of
SWIG which are simply not available with CFFI at all.  SWIG generates
the bindings to Python using the @samp{gpgme.h} file, but that file is not
a single version shipped with each release, it too is generated when
GPGME is compiled.

CFFI is currently unable to adapt to such a potentially mutable
codebase.  If there were some means of applying SWIG's dynamic code
generation to produce the Python/CFFI API modes of accessing the GPGME
libraries (or the source source code directly), but such a thing does
not exist yet either and it currently appears that work is needed in
at least one of CFFI's dependencies before any of this can be
addressed.

So if you're a massive fan of CFFI; that's great, but if you want this
project to switch to CFFI then rather than just insisting that it
should, I'd suggest you volunteer to bring CFFI up to the level this
project needs.

If you're actually seriously considering doing so, then I'd suggest
taking the @samp{gpgme-tool.c} file in the GPGME @samp{src/} directory and
getting that to work with any of the CFFI API methods (not the ABI
methods, they'll work with pretty much anything).  When you start
running into trouble with "ifdefs" then you'll know what sort of
things are lacking.  That doesn't even take into account the amount of
work saved via SWIG's code generation techniques either.

@node Virtualised Environments
@subsection Virtualised Environments

It is fairly common practice amongst Python developers to, as much as
possible, use packages like virtualenv to keep various things that are
to be installed from interfering with each other.  Given how much of
the GPGME bindings is often at odds with the usual pythonic way of
doing things, it stands to reason that this would be called into
question too.

As it happens the answer as to whether or not the bindings can be used
with virtualenv, the answer is both yes and no.

In general we recommend installing to the relevant path and matching
prefix of GPGME itself.  Which means that when GPGME, and ideally the
rest of the GnuPG stack, is installed to a prefix like @samp{/usr/local} or
@samp{/opt/local} then the bindings would need to be installed to the main
Python installation and not a virtualised abstraction.  Attempts to
separate the two in the past have been known to cause weird and
intermittent errors ranging from minor annoyances to complete failures
in the build process.

As a consequence we only recommend building with and installing to the
main Python installations within the same prefix as GPGME is installed
to or which are found by GPGME's configuration stage immediately prior
to running the make commands.  Which is exactly what the compiling and
installing process of GPGME does by default.

Once that is done, however, it appears that a copy the compiled module
may be installed into a virtualenv of the same major and minor version
matching the build.  Alternatively it is possible to utilise a
@samp{sites.pth} file in the @samp{site-packages/} directory of a viertualenv
installation, which links back to the system installations
corresponding directory in order to import anything installed system
wide.  This may or may not be appropriate on a case by case basis.

Though extensive testing of either of these options is not yet
complete, preliminary testing of them indicates that both are viable
as long as the main installation is complete.  Which means that
certain other options normally restricted to virtual environments are
also available, including integration with pythonic test suites
(e.g. @uref{https://docs.pytest.org/en/latest/index.html, pytest}) and other large projects.

That said, it is worth reiterating the warning regarding non-standard
installations.  If one were to attempt to install the bindings only to
a virtual environment without somehow also including the full GnuPG
stack (or enough of it as to include GPGME) then it is highly likely
that errors would be encountered at some point and more than a little
likely that the build process itself would break.

If a degree of separation from the main operating system is still
required in spite of these warnings, then consider other forms of
virtualisation.  Either a virtual machine (e.g. @uref{https://www.virtualbox.org/, VirtualBox}), a
hardware emulation layer (e.g. @uref{https://www.qemu.org/, QEMU}) or an application container
(e.g. @uref{https://www.docker.com/why-docker, Docker}).

Finally it should be noted that the limited tests conducted thus far
have been using the @samp{virtualenv} command in a new directory to create
the virtual python environment.  As opposed to the standard @samp{python3
-m venv} and it is possible that this will make a difference depending
on the system and version of Python in use.  Another option is to run
the command @samp{python3 -m virtualenv /path/to/install/virtual/thingy}
instead.

@node Fundamentals
@chapter Fundamentals

Before we can get to the fun stuff, there are a few matters regarding
GPGME's design which hold true whether you're dealing with the C code
directly or these Python bindings.

@menu
* No REST::
* Context::
@end menu

@node No REST
@section No REST

The first part of which is or will be fairly blatantly obvious upon
viewing the first example, but it's worth reiterating anyway.  That
being that this API is @emph{@strong{not}} a REST API.  Nor indeed could it ever
be one.

Most, if not all, Python programmers (and not just Python programmers)
know how easy it is to work with a RESTful API.  In fact they've
become so popular that many other APIs attempt to emulate REST-like
behaviour as much as they are able.  Right down to the use of JSON
formatted output to facilitate the use of their API without having to
retrain developers.

This API does not do that.  It would not be able to do that and also
provide access to the entire C API on which it's built.  It does,
however, provide a very pythonic interface on top of the direct
bindings and it's this pythonic layer that this HOWTO deals with.

@node Context
@section Context

One of the reasons which prevents this API from being RESTful is that
most operations require more than one instruction to the API to
perform the task.  Sure, there are certain functions which can be
performed simultaneously, particularly if the result known or strongly
anticipated (e.g. selecting and encrypting to a key known to be in the
public keybox).

There are many more, however, which cannot be manipulated so readily:
they must be performed in a specific sequence and the result of one
operation has a direct bearing on the outcome of subsequent
operations.  Not merely by generating an error either.

When dealing with this type of persistent state on the web, full of
both the RESTful and REST-like, it's most commonly referred to as a
session.  In GPGME, however, it is called a context and every
operation type has one.

@node Working with keys
@chapter Working with keys

@menu
* Key selection::
* Get key::
* Importing keys::
* Exporting keys::
@end menu

@node Key selection
@section Key selection

Selecting keys to encrypt to or to sign with will be a common
occurrence when working with GPGMe and the means available for doing
so are quite simple.

They do depend on utilising a Context; however once the data is
recorded in another variable, that Context does not need to be the
same one which subsequent operations are performed.

The easiest way to select a specific key is by searching for that
key's key ID or fingerprint, preferably the full fingerprint without
any spaces in it.  A long key ID will probably be okay, but is not
advised and short key IDs are already a problem with some being
generated to match specific patterns.  It does not matter whether the
pattern is upper or lower case.

So this is the best method:

@example
import gpg

k = gpg.Context().keylist(pattern="258E88DCBD3CD44D8E7AB43F6ECB6AF0DEADBEEF")
keys = list(k)
@end example

This is passable and very likely to be common:

@example
import gpg

k = gpg.Context().keylist(pattern="0x6ECB6AF0DEADBEEF")
keys = list(k)
@end example

And this is a really bad idea:

@example
import gpg

k = gpg.Context().keylist(pattern="0xDEADBEEF")
keys = list(k)
@end example

Alternatively it may be that the intention is to create a list of keys
which all match a particular search string.  For instance all the
addresses at a particular domain, like this:

@example
import gpg

ncsc = gpg.Context().keylist(pattern="ncsc.mil")
nsa = list(ncsc)
@end example

@menu
* Counting keys::
@end menu

@node Counting keys
@subsection Counting keys

Counting the number of keys in your public keybox (@samp{pubring.kbx}), the
format which has superseded the old keyring format (@samp{pubring.gpg} and
@samp{secring.gpg}), or the number of secret keys is a very simple task.

@example
import gpg

c = gpg.Context()
seckeys = c.keylist(pattern=None, secret=True)
pubkeys = c.keylist(pattern=None, secret=False)

seclist = list(seckeys)
secnum = len(seclist)

publist = list(pubkeys)
pubnum = len(publist)

print("""
  Number of secret keys:  @{0@}
  Number of public keys:  @{1@}
""".format(secnum, pubnum))
@end example

NOTE: The @ref{C plus Python plus SWIG plus Cython, , Cython} introduction in the @ref{Advanced or Experimental Use Cases, , Advanced and Experimental}
section uses this same key counting code with Cython to demonstrate
some areas where Cython can improve performance even with the
bindings.  Users with large public keyrings or keyboxes, for instance,
should consider these options if they are comfortable with using
Cython.

@node Get key
@section Get key

An alternative method of getting a single key via its fingerprint is
available directly within a Context with @samp{Context().get_key}.  This is
the preferred method of selecting a key in order to modify it, sign or
certify it and for obtaining relevant data about a single key as a
part of other functions; when verifying a signature made by that key,
for instance.

By default this method will select public keys, but it can select
secret keys as well.

This first example demonstrates selecting the current key of Werner
Koch, which is due to expire at the end of 2018:

@example
import gpg

fingerprint = "80615870F5BAD690333686D0F2AD85AC1E42B367"
key = gpg.Context().get_key(fingerprint)
@end example

Whereas this example demonstrates selecting the author's current key
with the @samp{secret} key word argument set to @samp{True}:

@example
import gpg

fingerprint = "DB4724E6FA4286C92B4E55C4321E4E2373590E5D"
key = gpg.Context().get_key(fingerprint, secret=True)
@end example

It is, of course, quite possible to select expired, disabled and
revoked keys with this function, but only to effectively display
information about those keys.

It is also possible to use both unicode or string literals and byte
literals with the fingerprint when getting a key in this way.

@node Importing keys
@section Importing keys

Importing keys is possible with the @samp{key_import()} method and takes
one argument which is a bytes literal object containing either the
binary or ASCII armoured key data for one or more keys.

The following example retrieves one or more keys from the SKS
keyservers via the web using the requests module.  Since requests
returns the content as a bytes literal object, we can then use that
directly to import the resulting data into our keybox.

@example
import gpg
import os.path
import requests

c = gpg.Context()
url = "https://sks-keyservers.net/pks/lookup"
pattern = input("Enter the pattern to search for key or user IDs: ")
payload = @{"op": "get", "search": pattern@}

r = requests.get(url, verify=True, params=payload)
result = c.key_import(r.content)

if result is not None and hasattr(result, "considered") is False:
    print(result)
elif result is not None and hasattr(result, "considered") is True:
    num_keys = len(result.imports)
    new_revs = result.new_revocations
    new_sigs = result.new_signatures
    new_subs = result.new_sub_keys
    new_uids = result.new_user_ids
    new_scrt = result.secret_imported
    nochange = result.unchanged
    print("""
  The total number of keys considered for import was:  @{0@}

     Number of keys revoked:  @{1@}
   Number of new signatures:  @{2@}
      Number of new subkeys:  @{3@}
     Number of new user IDs:  @{4@}
  Number of new secret keys:  @{5@}
   Number of unchanged keys:  @{6@}

  The key IDs for all considered keys were:
""".format(num_keys, new_revs, new_sigs, new_subs, new_uids, new_scrt,
           nochange))
    for i in range(num_keys):
        print("@{0@}\n".format(result.imports[i].fpr))
else:
    pass
@end example

NOTE: When searching for a key ID of any length or a fingerprint
(without spaces), the SKS servers require the the leading @samp{0x}
indicative of hexadecimal be included.  Also note that the old short
key IDs (e.g. @samp{0xDEADBEEF}) should no longer be used due to the
relative ease by which such key IDs can be reproduced, as demonstrated
by the Evil32 Project in 2014 (which was subsequently exploited in
2016).

@menu
* Working with ProtonMail::
* Importing with HKP for Python::
* Importing from ProtonMail with HKP for Python::
@end menu

@node Working with ProtonMail
@subsection Working with ProtonMail

Here is a variation on the example above which checks the constrained
ProtonMail keyserver for ProtonMail public keys.

@example
import gpg
import requests
import sys

print("""
This script searches the ProtonMail key server for the specified key and
imports it.
""")

c = gpg.Context(armor=True)
url = "https://api.protonmail.ch/pks/lookup"
ksearch = []

if len(sys.argv) >= 2:
    keyterm = sys.argv[1]
else:
    keyterm = input("Enter the key ID, UID or search string: ")

if keyterm.count("@@") == 2 and keyterm.startswith("@@") is True:
    ksearch.append(keyterm[1:])
    ksearch.append(keyterm[1:])
    ksearch.append(keyterm[1:])
elif keyterm.count("@@") == 1 and keyterm.startswith("@@") is True:
    ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.com".format(keyterm[1:]))
    ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.ch".format(keyterm[1:]))
    ksearch.append("@{0@}@@pm.me".format(keyterm[1:]))
elif keyterm.count("@@") == 0:
    ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.com".format(keyterm))
    ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.ch".format(keyterm))
    ksearch.append("@{0@}@@pm.me".format(keyterm))
elif keyterm.count("@@") == 2 and keyterm.startswith("@@") is False:
    uidlist = keyterm.split("@@")
    for uid in uidlist:
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.com".format(uid))
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.ch".format(uid))
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@pm.me".format(uid))
elif keyterm.count("@@") > 2:
    uidlist = keyterm.split("@@")
    for uid in uidlist:
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.com".format(uid))
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.ch".format(uid))
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@pm.me".format(uid))
else:
    ksearch.append(keyterm)

for k in ksearch:
    payload = @{"op": "get", "search": k@}
    try:
        r = requests.get(url, verify=True, params=payload)
        if r.ok is True:
            result = c.key_import(r.content)
        elif r.ok is False:
            result = r.content
    except Exception as e:
        result = None

    if result is not None and hasattr(result, "considered") is False:
        print("@{0@} for @{1@}".format(result.decode(), k))
    elif result is not None and hasattr(result, "considered") is True:
        num_keys = len(result.imports)
        new_revs = result.new_revocations
        new_sigs = result.new_signatures
        new_subs = result.new_sub_keys
        new_uids = result.new_user_ids
        new_scrt = result.secret_imported
        nochange = result.unchanged
        print("""
The total number of keys considered for import was:  @{0@}

With UIDs wholely or partially matching the following string:

        @{1@}

   Number of keys revoked:  @{2@}
 Number of new signatures:  @{3@}
    Number of new subkeys:  @{4@}
   Number of new user IDs:  @{5@}
Number of new secret keys:  @{6@}
 Number of unchanged keys:  @{7@}

The key IDs for all considered keys were:
""".format(num_keys, k, new_revs, new_sigs, new_subs, new_uids, new_scrt,
           nochange))
        for i in range(num_keys):
            print(result.imports[i].fpr)
        print("")
    elif result is None:
        print(e)
@end example

Both the above example, @uref{../examples/howto/pmkey-import.py, pmkey-import.py}, and a version which prompts
for an alternative GnuPG home directory, @uref{../examples/howto/pmkey-import-alt.py, pmkey-import-alt.py}, are
available with the other examples and are executable scripts.

Note that while the ProtonMail servers are based on the SKS servers,
their server is related more to their API and is not feature complete
by comparison to the servers in the SKS pool.  One notable difference
being that the ProtonMail server does not permit non ProtonMail users
to update their own keys, which could be a vector for attacking
ProtonMail users who may not receive a key's revocation if it had been
compromised.

@node Importing with HKP for Python
@subsection Importing with HKP for Python

Performing the same tasks with the @uref{https://github.com/Selfnet/hkp4py, hkp4py module} (available via PyPI)
is not too much different, but does provide a number of options of
benefit to end users.  Not least of which being the ability to perform
some checks on a key before importing it or not.  For instance it may
be the policy of a site or project to only import keys which have not
been revoked.  The hkp4py module permits such checks prior to the
importing of the keys found.

@example
import gpg
import hkp4py
import sys

c = gpg.Context()
server = hkp4py.KeyServer("hkps://hkps.pool.sks-keyservers.net")
results = []

if len(sys.argv) > 2:
    pattern = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])
elif len(sys.argv) == 2:
    pattern = sys.argv[1]
else:
    pattern = input("Enter the pattern to search for keys or user IDs: ")

try:
    keys = server.search(pattern)
    print("Found @{0@} key(s).".format(len(keys)))
except Exception as e:
    keys = []
    for logrus in pattern.split():
        if logrus.startswith("0x") is True:
            key = server.search(logrus)
        else:
            key = server.search("0x@{0@}".format(logrus))
        keys.append(key[0])
    print("Found @{0@} key(s).".format(len(keys)))

for key in keys:
    import_result = c.key_import(key.key_blob)
    results.append(import_result)

for result in results:
    if result is not None and hasattr(result, "considered") is False:
        print(result)
    elif result is not None and hasattr(result, "considered") is True:
        num_keys = len(result.imports)
        new_revs = result.new_revocations
        new_sigs = result.new_signatures
        new_subs = result.new_sub_keys
        new_uids = result.new_user_ids
        new_scrt = result.secret_imported
        nochange = result.unchanged
        print("""
The total number of keys considered for import was:  @{0@}

   Number of keys revoked:  @{1@}
 Number of new signatures:  @{2@}
    Number of new subkeys:  @{3@}
   Number of new user IDs:  @{4@}
Number of new secret keys:  @{5@}
 Number of unchanged keys:  @{6@}

The key IDs for all considered keys were:
""".format(num_keys, new_revs, new_sigs, new_subs, new_uids, new_scrt,
           nochange))
        for i in range(num_keys):
            print(result.imports[i].fpr)
        print("")
    else:
        pass
@end example

Since the hkp4py module handles multiple keys just as effectively as
one (@samp{keys} is a list of responses per matching key), the example
above is able to do a little bit more with the returned data before
anything is actually imported.

@node Importing from ProtonMail with HKP for Python
@subsection Importing from ProtonMail with HKP for Python

Though this can provide certain benefits even when working with
ProtonMail, the scope is somewhat constrained there due to the
limitations of the ProtonMail keyserver.

For instance, searching the SKS keyserver pool for the term "gnupg"
produces hundreds of results from any time the word appears in any
part of a user ID.  Performing the same search on the ProtonMail
keyserver returns zero results, even though there are at least two
test accounts which include it as part of the username.

The cause of this discrepancy is the deliberate configuration of that
server by ProtonMail to require an exact match of the full email
address of the ProtonMail user whose key is being requested.
Presumably this is intended to reduce breaches of privacy of their
users as an email address must already be known before a key for that
address can be obtained.

@enumerate
@item
Import from ProtonMail via HKP for Python Example no. 1


The following script is avalable with the rest of the examples under
the somewhat less than original name, @samp{pmkey-import-hkp.py}.

@example
import gpg
import hkp4py
import os.path
import sys

print("""
This script searches the ProtonMail key server for the specified key and
imports it.

Usage:  pmkey-import-hkp.py [search strings]
""")

c = gpg.Context(armor=True)
server = hkp4py.KeyServer("hkps://api.protonmail.ch")
keyterms = []
ksearch = []
allkeys = []
results = []
paradox = []
homeless = None

if len(sys.argv) > 2:
    keyterms = sys.argv[1:]
elif len(sys.argv) == 2:
    keyterm = sys.argv[1]
    keyterms.append(keyterm)
else:
    key_term = input("Enter the key ID, UID or search string: ")
    keyterms = key_term.split()

for keyterm in keyterms:
    if keyterm.count("@@") == 2 and keyterm.startswith("@@") is True:
        ksearch.append(keyterm[1:])
        ksearch.append(keyterm[1:])
        ksearch.append(keyterm[1:])
    elif keyterm.count("@@") == 1 and keyterm.startswith("@@") is True:
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.com".format(keyterm[1:]))
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.ch".format(keyterm[1:]))
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@pm.me".format(keyterm[1:]))
    elif keyterm.count("@@") == 0:
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.com".format(keyterm))
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.ch".format(keyterm))
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@pm.me".format(keyterm))
    elif keyterm.count("@@") == 2 and keyterm.startswith("@@") is False:
        uidlist = keyterm.split("@@")
        for uid in uidlist:
            ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.com".format(uid))
            ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.ch".format(uid))
            ksearch.append("@{0@}@@pm.me".format(uid))
    elif keyterm.count("@@") > 2:
        uidlist = keyterm.split("@@")
        for uid in uidlist:
            ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.com".format(uid))
            ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.ch".format(uid))
            ksearch.append("@{0@}@@pm.me".format(uid))
    else:
        ksearch.append(keyterm)

for k in ksearch:
    print("Checking for key for: @{0@}".format(k))
    try:
        keys = server.search(k)
        if isinstance(keys, list) is True:
            for key in keys:
                allkeys.append(key)
                try:
                    import_result = c.key_import(key.key_blob)
                except Exception as e:
                    import_result = c.key_import(key.key)
        else:
            paradox.append(keys)
            import_result = None
    except Exception as e:
        import_result = None
    results.append(import_result)

for result in results:
    if result is not None and hasattr(result, "considered") is False:
        print("@{0@} for @{1@}".format(result.decode(), k))
    elif result is not None and hasattr(result, "considered") is True:
        num_keys = len(result.imports)
        new_revs = result.new_revocations
        new_sigs = result.new_signatures
        new_subs = result.new_sub_keys
        new_uids = result.new_user_ids
        new_scrt = result.secret_imported
        nochange = result.unchanged
        print("""
The total number of keys considered for import was:  @{0@}

With UIDs wholely or partially matching the following string:

        @{1@}

   Number of keys revoked:  @{2@}
 Number of new signatures:  @{3@}
    Number of new subkeys:  @{4@}
   Number of new user IDs:  @{5@}
Number of new secret keys:  @{6@}
 Number of unchanged keys:  @{7@}

The key IDs for all considered keys were:
""".format(num_keys, k, new_revs, new_sigs, new_subs, new_uids, new_scrt,
           nochange))
        for i in range(num_keys):
            print(result.imports[i].fpr)
        print("")
    elif result is None:
        pass
@end example

@item
Import from ProtonMail via HKP for Python Example no. 2


Like its counterpart above, this script can also be found with the
rest of the examples, by the name pmkey-import-hkp-alt.py.

With this script a modicum of effort has been made to treat anything
passed as a @samp{homedir} which either does not exist or which is not a
directory, as also being a pssible user ID to check for.  It's not
guaranteed to pick up on all such cases, but it should cover most of
them.

@example
import gpg
import hkp4py
import os.path
import sys

print("""
This script searches the ProtonMail key server for the specified key and
imports it.  Optionally enables specifying a different GnuPG home directory.

Usage:  pmkey-import-hkp.py [homedir] [search string]
   or:  pmkey-import-hkp.py [search string]
""")

c = gpg.Context(armor=True)
server = hkp4py.KeyServer("hkps://api.protonmail.ch")
keyterms = []
ksearch = []
allkeys = []
results = []
paradox = []
homeless = None

if len(sys.argv) > 3:
    homedir = sys.argv[1]
    keyterms = sys.argv[2:]
elif len(sys.argv) == 3:
    homedir = sys.argv[1]
    keyterm = sys.argv[2]
    keyterms.append(keyterm)
elif len(sys.argv) == 2:
    homedir = ""
    keyterm = sys.argv[1]
    keyterms.append(keyterm)
else:
    keyterm = input("Enter the key ID, UID or search string: ")
    homedir = input("Enter the GPG configuration directory path (optional): ")
    keyterms.append(keyterm)

if len(homedir) == 0:
    homedir = None
    homeless = False

if homedir is not None:
    if homedir.startswith("~"):
        if os.path.exists(os.path.expanduser(homedir)) is True:
            if os.path.isdir(os.path.expanduser(homedir)) is True:
                c.home_dir = os.path.realpath(os.path.expanduser(homedir))
            else:
                homeless = True
        else:
            homeless = True
    elif os.path.exists(os.path.realpath(homedir)) is True:
        if os.path.isdir(os.path.realpath(homedir)) is True:
            c.home_dir = os.path.realpath(homedir)
        else:
            homeless = True
    else:
        homeless = True

# First check to see if the homedir really is a homedir and if not, treat it as
# a search string.
if homeless is True:
    keyterms.append(homedir)
    c.home_dir = None
else:
    pass

for keyterm in keyterms:
    if keyterm.count("@@") == 2 and keyterm.startswith("@@") is True:
        ksearch.append(keyterm[1:])
        ksearch.append(keyterm[1:])
        ksearch.append(keyterm[1:])
    elif keyterm.count("@@") == 1 and keyterm.startswith("@@") is True:
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.com".format(keyterm[1:]))
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.ch".format(keyterm[1:]))
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@pm.me".format(keyterm[1:]))
    elif keyterm.count("@@") == 0:
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.com".format(keyterm))
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.ch".format(keyterm))
        ksearch.append("@{0@}@@pm.me".format(keyterm))
    elif keyterm.count("@@") == 2 and keyterm.startswith("@@") is False:
        uidlist = keyterm.split("@@")
        for uid in uidlist:
            ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.com".format(uid))
            ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.ch".format(uid))
            ksearch.append("@{0@}@@pm.me".format(uid))
    elif keyterm.count("@@") > 2:
        uidlist = keyterm.split("@@")
        for uid in uidlist:
            ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.com".format(uid))
            ksearch.append("@{0@}@@protonmail.ch".format(uid))
            ksearch.append("@{0@}@@pm.me".format(uid))
    else:
        ksearch.append(keyterm)

for k in ksearch:
    print("Checking for key for: @{0@}".format(k))
    try:
        keys = server.search(k)
        if isinstance(keys, list) is True:
            for key in keys:
                allkeys.append(key)
                try:
                    import_result = c.key_import(key.key_blob)
                except Exception as e:
                    import_result = c.key_import(key.key)
        else:
            paradox.append(keys)
            import_result = None
    except Exception as e:
        import_result = None
    results.append(import_result)

for result in results:
    if result is not None and hasattr(result, "considered") is False:
        print("@{0@} for @{1@}".format(result.decode(), k))
    elif result is not None and hasattr(result, "considered") is True:
        num_keys = len(result.imports)
        new_revs = result.new_revocations
        new_sigs = result.new_signatures
        new_subs = result.new_sub_keys
        new_uids = result.new_user_ids
        new_scrt = result.secret_imported
        nochange = result.unchanged
        print("""
The total number of keys considered for import was:  @{0@}

With UIDs wholely or partially matching the following string:

        @{1@}

   Number of keys revoked:  @{2@}
 Number of new signatures:  @{3@}
    Number of new subkeys:  @{4@}
   Number of new user IDs:  @{5@}
Number of new secret keys:  @{6@}
 Number of unchanged keys:  @{7@}

The key IDs for all considered keys were:
""".format(num_keys, k, new_revs, new_sigs, new_subs, new_uids, new_scrt,
           nochange))
        for i in range(num_keys):
            print(result.imports[i].fpr)
        print("")
    elif result is None:
        pass
@end example
@end enumerate

@node Exporting keys
@section Exporting keys

Exporting keys remains a reasonably simple task, but has been
separated into three different functions for the OpenPGP cryptographic
engine.  Two of those functions are for exporting public keys and the
third is for exporting secret keys.

@menu
* Exporting public keys::
* Exporting secret keys::
* Sending public keys to the SKS Keyservers::
@end menu

@node Exporting public keys
@subsection Exporting public keys

There are two methods of exporting public keys, both of which are very
similar to the other.  The default method, @samp{key_export()}, will export
a public key or keys matching a specified pattern as normal.  The
alternative, the @samp{key_export_minimal()} method, will do the same thing
except producing a minimised output with extra signatures and third
party signatures or certifications removed.

@example
import gpg
import os.path
import sys

print("""
This script exports one or more public keys.
""")

c = gpg.Context(armor=True)

if len(sys.argv) >= 4:
    keyfile = sys.argv[1]
    logrus = sys.argv[2]
    homedir = sys.argv[3]
elif len(sys.argv) == 3:
    keyfile = sys.argv[1]
    logrus = sys.argv[2]
    homedir = input("Enter the GPG configuration directory path (optional): ")
elif len(sys.argv) == 2:
    keyfile = sys.argv[1]
    logrus = input("Enter the UID matching the key(s) to export: ")
    homedir = input("Enter the GPG configuration directory path (optional): ")
else:
    keyfile = input("Enter the path and filename to save the secret key to: ")
    logrus = input("Enter the UID matching the key(s) to export: ")
    homedir = input("Enter the GPG configuration directory path (optional): ")

if homedir.startswith("~"):
    if os.path.exists(os.path.expanduser(homedir)) is True:
        c.home_dir = os.path.expanduser(homedir)
    else:
        pass
elif os.path.exists(homedir) is True:
    c.home_dir = homedir
else:
    pass

try:
    result = c.key_export(pattern=logrus)
except:
    result = c.key_export(pattern=None)

if result is not None:
    with open(keyfile, "wb") as f:
        f.write(result)
else:
    pass
@end example

It should be noted that the result will only return @samp{None} when a
search pattern has been entered, but has not matched any keys.  When
the search pattern itself is set to @samp{None} this triggers the exporting
of the entire public keybox.

@example
import gpg
import os.path
import sys

print("""
This script exports one or more public keys in minimised form.
""")

c = gpg.Context(armor=True)

if len(sys.argv) >= 4:
    keyfile = sys.argv[1]
    logrus = sys.argv[2]
    homedir = sys.argv[3]
elif len(sys.argv) == 3:
    keyfile = sys.argv[1]
    logrus = sys.argv[2]
    homedir = input("Enter the GPG configuration directory path (optional): ")
elif len(sys.argv) == 2:
    keyfile = sys.argv[1]
    logrus = input("Enter the UID matching the key(s) to export: ")
    homedir = input("Enter the GPG configuration directory path (optional): ")
else:
    keyfile = input("Enter the path and filename to save the secret key to: ")
    logrus = input("Enter the UID matching the key(s) to export: ")
    homedir = input("Enter the GPG configuration directory path (optional): ")

if homedir.startswith("~"):
    if os.path.exists(os.path.expanduser(homedir)) is True:
        c.home_dir = os.path.expanduser(homedir)
    else:
        pass
elif os.path.exists(homedir) is True:
    c.home_dir = homedir
else:
    pass

try:
    result = c.key_export_minimal(pattern=logrus)
except:
    result = c.key_export_minimal(pattern=None)

if result is not None:
    with open(keyfile, "wb") as f:
        f.write(result)
else:
    pass
@end example

@node Exporting secret keys
@subsection Exporting secret keys

Exporting secret keys is, functionally, very similar to exporting
public keys; save for the invocation of @samp{pinentry} via @samp{gpg-agent} in
order to securely enter the key's passphrase and authorise the export.

The following example exports the secret key to a file which is then
set with the same permissions as the output files created by the
command line secret key export options.

@example
import gpg
import os
import os.path
import sys

print("""
This script exports one or more secret keys.

The gpg-agent and pinentry are invoked to authorise the export.
""")

c = gpg.Context(armor=True)

if len(sys.argv) >= 4:
    keyfile = sys.argv[1]
    logrus = sys.argv[2]
    homedir = sys.argv[3]
elif len(sys.argv) == 3:
    keyfile = sys.argv[1]
    logrus = sys.argv[2]
    homedir = input("Enter the GPG configuration directory path (optional): ")
elif len(sys.argv) == 2:
    keyfile = sys.argv[1]
    logrus = input("Enter the UID matching the secret key(s) to export: ")
    homedir = input("Enter the GPG configuration directory path (optional): ")
else:
    keyfile = input("Enter the path and filename to save the secret key to: ")
    logrus = input("Enter the UID matching the secret key(s) to export: ")
    homedir = input("Enter the GPG configuration directory path (optional): ")

if len(homedir) == 0:
    homedir = None
elif homedir.startswith("~"):
    userdir = os.path.expanduser(homedir)
    if os.path.exists(userdir) is True:
        homedir = os.path.realpath(userdir)
    else:
        homedir = None
else:
    homedir = os.path.realpath(homedir)

if os.path.exists(homedir) is False:
    homedir = None
else:
    if os.path.isdir(homedir) is False:
        homedir = None
    else:
        pass

if homedir is not None:
    c.home_dir = homedir
else:
    pass

try:
    result = c.key_export_secret(pattern=logrus)
except:
    result = c.key_export_secret(pattern=None)

if result is not None:
    with open(keyfile, "wb") as f:
        f.write(result)
    os.chmod(keyfile, 0o600)
else:
    pass
@end example

Alternatively the approach of the following script can be used.  This
longer example saves the exported secret key(s) in files in the GnuPG
home directory, in addition to setting the file permissions as only
readable and writable by the user.  It also exports the secret key(s)
twice in order to output both GPG binary (@samp{.gpg}) and ASCII armoured
(@samp{.asc}) files.

@example
import gpg
import os
import os.path
import subprocess
import sys

print("""
This script exports one or more secret keys as both ASCII armored and binary
file formats, saved in files within the user's GPG home directory.

The gpg-agent and pinentry are invoked to authorise the export.
""")

if sys.platform == "win32":
    gpgconfcmd = "gpgconf.exe --list-dirs homedir"
else:
    gpgconfcmd = "gpgconf --list-dirs homedir"

a = gpg.Context(armor=True)
b = gpg.Context()
c = gpg.Context()

if len(sys.argv) >= 4:
    keyfile = sys.argv[1]
    logrus = sys.argv[2]
    homedir = sys.argv[3]
elif len(sys.argv) == 3:
    keyfile = sys.argv[1]
    logrus = sys.argv[2]
    homedir = input("Enter the GPG configuration directory path (optional): ")
elif len(sys.argv) == 2:
    keyfile = sys.argv[1]
    logrus = input("Enter the UID matching the secret key(s) to export: ")
    homedir = input("Enter the GPG configuration directory path (optional): ")
else:
    keyfile = input("Enter the filename to save the secret key to: ")
    logrus = input("Enter the UID matching the secret key(s) to export: ")
    homedir = input("Enter the GPG configuration directory path (optional): ")

if len(homedir) == 0:
    homedir = None
elif homedir.startswith("~"):
    userdir = os.path.expanduser(homedir)
    if os.path.exists(userdir) is True:
        homedir = os.path.realpath(userdir)
    else:
        homedir = None
else:
    homedir = os.path.realpath(homedir)

if os.path.exists(homedir) is False:
    homedir = None
else:
    if os.path.isdir(homedir) is False:
        homedir = None
    else:
        pass

if homedir is not None:
    c.home_dir = homedir
else:
    pass

if c.home_dir is not None:
    if c.home_dir.endswith("/"):
        gpgfile = "@{0@}@{1@}.gpg".format(c.home_dir, keyfile)
        ascfile = "@{0@}@{1@}.asc".format(c.home_dir, keyfile)
    else:
        gpgfile = "@{0@}/@{1@}.gpg".format(c.home_dir, keyfile)
        ascfile = "@{0@}/@{1@}.asc".format(c.home_dir, keyfile)
else:
    if os.path.exists(os.environ["GNUPGHOME"]) is True:
        hd = os.environ["GNUPGHOME"]
    else:
        try:
            hd = subprocess.getoutput(gpgconfcmd)
        except:
            process = subprocess.Popen(gpgconfcmd.split(),
                                       stdout=subprocess.PIPE)
            procom = process.communicate()
            if sys.version_info[0] == 2:
                hd = procom[0].strip()
            else:
                hd = procom[0].decode().strip()
    gpgfile = "@{0@}/@{1@}.gpg".format(hd, keyfile)
    ascfile = "@{0@}/@{1@}.asc".format(hd, keyfile)

try:
    a_result = a.key_export_secret(pattern=logrus)
    b_result = b.key_export_secret(pattern=logrus)
except:
    a_result = a.key_export_secret(pattern=None)
    b_result = b.key_export_secret(pattern=None)

if a_result is not None:
    with open(ascfile, "wb") as f:
        f.write(a_result)
    os.chmod(ascfile, 0o600)
else:
    pass

if b_result is not None:
    with open(gpgfile, "wb") as f:
        f.write(b_result)
    os.chmod(gpgfile, 0o600)
else:
    pass
@end example

@node Sending public keys to the SKS Keyservers
@subsection Sending public keys to the SKS Keyservers

As with the previous section on importing keys, the @samp{hkp4py} module
adds another option with exporting keys in order to send them to the
public keyservers.

The following example demonstrates how this may be done.

@example
import gpg
import hkp4py
import os.path
import sys

print("""
This script sends one or more public keys to the SKS keyservers and is
essentially a slight variation on the export-key.py script.
""")

c = gpg.Context(armor=True)
server = hkp4py.KeyServer("hkps://hkps.pool.sks-keyservers.net")

if len(sys.argv) > 2:
    logrus = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])
elif len(sys.argv) == 2:
    logrus = sys.argv[1]
else:
    logrus = input("Enter the UID matching the key(s) to send: ")

if len(logrus) > 0:
    try:
        export_result = c.key_export(pattern=logrus)
    except Exception as e:
        print(e)
        export_result = None
else:
    export_result = c.key_export(pattern=None)

if export_result is not None:
    try:
        try:
            send_result = server.add(export_result)
        except:
            send_result = server.add(export_result.decode())
        if send_result is not None:
            print(send_result)
        else:
            pass
    except Exception as e:
        print(e)
else:
    pass
@end example

An expanded version of this script with additional functions for
specifying an alternative homedir location is in the examples
directory as @samp{send-key-to-keyserver.py}.

The @samp{hkp4py} module appears to handle both string and byte literal text
data equally well, but the GPGME bindings deal primarily with byte
literal data only and so this script sends in that format first, then
tries the string literal form.

@node Basic Functions
@chapter Basic Functions

The most frequently called features of any cryptographic library will
be the most fundamental tasks for encryption software.  In this
section we will look at how to programmatically encrypt data, decrypt
it, sign it and verify signatures.

@menu
* Encryption::
* Decryption::
* Signing text and files::
* Signature verification::
@end menu

@node Encryption
@section Encryption

Encrypting is very straight forward.  In the first example below the
message, @samp{text}, is encrypted to a single recipient's key.  In the
second example the message will be encrypted to multiple recipients.

@menu
* Encrypting to one key::
* Encrypting to multiple keys::
@end menu

@node Encrypting to one key
@subsection Encrypting to one key

Once the the Context is set the main issues with encrypting data is
essentially reduced to key selection and the keyword arguments
specified in the @samp{gpg.Context().encrypt()} method.

Those keyword arguments are: @samp{recipients}, a list of keys encrypted to
(covered in greater detail in the following section); @samp{sign}, whether
or not to sign the plaintext data, see subsequent sections on signing
and verifying signatures below (defaults to @samp{True}); @samp{sink}, to write
results or partial results to a secure sink instead of returning it
(defaults to @samp{None}); @samp{passphrase}, only used when utilising symmetric
encryption (defaults to @samp{None}); @samp{always_trust}, used to override the
trust model settings for recipient keys (defaults to @samp{False});
@samp{add_encrypt_to}, utilises any preconfigured @samp{encrypt-to} or
@samp{default-key} settings in the user's @samp{gpg.conf} file (defaults to
@samp{False}); @samp{prepare}, prepare for encryption (defaults to @samp{False});
@samp{expect_sign}, prepare for signing (defaults to @samp{False}); @samp{compress},
compresses the plaintext prior to encryption (defaults to @samp{True}).

@example
import gpg

a_key = "0x12345678DEADBEEF"
text = b"""Some text to test with.

Since the text in this case must be bytes, it is most likely that
the input form will be a separate file which is opened with "rb"
as this is the simplest method of obtaining the correct data format.
"""

c = gpg.Context(armor=True)
rkey = list(c.keylist(pattern=a_key, secret=False))
ciphertext, result, sign_result = c.encrypt(text, recipients=rkey, sign=False)

with open("secret_plans.txt.asc", "wb") as afile:
    afile.write(ciphertext)
@end example

Though this is even more likely to be used like this; with the
plaintext input read from a file, the recipient keys used for
encryption regardless of key trust status and the encrypted output
also encrypted to any preconfigured keys set in the @samp{gpg.conf} file:

@example
import gpg

a_key = "0x12345678DEADBEEF"

with open("secret_plans.txt", "rb") as afile:
    text = afile.read()

c = gpg.Context(armor=True)
rkey = list(c.keylist(pattern=a_key, secret=False))
ciphertext, result, sign_result = c.encrypt(text, recipients=rkey, sign=True,
                                            always_trust=True,
                                            add_encrypt_to=True)

with open("secret_plans.txt.asc", "wb") as afile:
    afile.write(ciphertext)
@end example

If the @samp{recipients} paramater is empty then the plaintext is encrypted
symmetrically.  If no @samp{passphrase} is supplied as a parameter or via a
callback registered with the @samp{Context()} then an out-of-band prompt
for the passphrase via pinentry will be invoked.

@node Encrypting to multiple keys
@subsection Encrypting to multiple keys

Encrypting to multiple keys essentially just expands upon the key
selection process and the recipients from the previous examples.

The following example encrypts a message (@samp{text}) to everyone with an
email address on the @samp{gnupg.org} domain,@footnote{You probably don't really want to do this.  Searching the
keyservers for "gnupg.org" produces over 400 results, the majority of
which aren't actually at the gnupg.org domain, but just included a
comment regarding the project in their key somewhere.} but does @emph{not} encrypt
to a default key or other key which is configured to normally encrypt
to.

@example
import gpg

text = b"""Oh look, another test message.

The same rules apply as with the previous example and more likely
than not, the message will actually be drawn from reading the
contents of a file or, maybe, from entering data at an input()
prompt.

Since the text in this case must be bytes, it is most likely that
the input form will be a separate file which is opened with "rb"
as this is the simplest method of obtaining the correct data
format.
"""

c = gpg.Context(armor=True)
rpattern = list(c.keylist(pattern="@@gnupg.org", secret=False))
logrus = []

for i in range(len(rpattern)):
    if rpattern[i].can_encrypt == 1:
        logrus.append(rpattern[i])

ciphertext, result, sign_result = c.encrypt(text, recipients=logrus,
                                            sign=False, always_trust=True)

with open("secret_plans.txt.asc", "wb") as afile:
    afile.write(ciphertext)
@end example

All it would take to change the above example to sign the message
and also encrypt the message to any configured default keys would
be to change the @samp{c.encrypt} line to this:

@example
ciphertext, result, sign_result = c.encrypt(text, recipients=logrus,
                                            always_trust=True,
                                            add_encrypt_to=True)
@end example

The only keyword arguments requiring modification are those for which
the default values are changing.  The default value of @samp{sign} is
@samp{True}, the default of @samp{always_trust} is @samp{False}, the default of
@samp{add_encrypt_to} is @samp{False}.

If @samp{always_trust} is not set to @samp{True} and any of the recipient keys
are not trusted (e.g. not signed or locally signed) then the
encryption will raise an error.  It is possible to mitigate this
somewhat with something more like this:

@example
import gpg

with open("secret_plans.txt.asc", "rb") as afile:
    text = afile.read()

c = gpg.Context(armor=True)
rpattern = list(c.keylist(pattern="@@gnupg.org", secret=False))
logrus = []

for i in range(len(rpattern)):
    if rpattern[i].can_encrypt == 1:
        logrus.append(rpattern[i])

    try:
        ciphertext, result, sign_result = c.encrypt(text, recipients=logrus,
                                                    add_encrypt_to=True)
    except gpg.errors.InvalidRecipients as e:
        for i in range(len(e.recipients)):
            for n in range(len(logrus)):
                if logrus[n].fpr == e.recipients[i].fpr:
                    logrus.remove(logrus[n])
                else:
                    pass
        try:
            ciphertext, result, sign_result = c.encrypt(text,
                                                        recipients=logrus,
                                                        add_encrypt_to=True)
            with open("secret_plans.txt.asc", "wb") as afile:
                afile.write(ciphertext)
        except:
            pass
@end example

This will attempt to encrypt to all the keys searched for, then remove
invalid recipients if it fails and try again.

@node Decryption
@section Decryption

Decrypting something encrypted to a key in one's secret keyring is
fairly straight forward.

In this example code, however, preconfiguring either @samp{gpg.Context()}
or @samp{gpg.core.Context()} as @samp{c} is unnecessary because there is no need
to modify the Context prior to conducting the decryption and since the
Context is only used once, setting it to @samp{c} simply adds lines for no
gain.

@example
import gpg

ciphertext = input("Enter path and filename of encrypted file: ")
newfile = input("Enter path and filename of file to save decrypted data to: ")

with open(ciphertext, "rb") as cfile:
    try:
        plaintext, result, verify_result = gpg.Context().decrypt(cfile)
    except gpg.errors.GPGMEError as e:
        plaintext = None
        print(e)

if plaintext is not None:
    with open(newfile, "wb") as nfile:
            nfile.write(plaintext)
    else:
        pass
@end example

The data available in @samp{plaintext} in this example is the decrypted
content as a byte object, the recipient key IDs and algorithms in
@samp{result} and the results of verifying any signatures of the data in
@samp{verify_result}.

@node Signing text and files
@section Signing text and files

The following sections demonstrate how to specify keys to sign with.

@menu
* Signing key selection::
* Normal or default signing messages or files::
* Detached signing messages and files::
* Clearsigning messages or text::
@end menu

@node Signing key selection
@subsection Signing key selection

By default GPGME and the Python bindings will use the default key
configured for the user invoking the GPGME API.  If there is no
default key specified and there is more than one secret key available
it may be necessary to specify the key or keys with which to sign
messages and files.

@example
import gpg

logrus = input("Enter the email address or string to match signing keys to: ")
hancock = gpg.Context().keylist(pattern=logrus, secret=True)
sig_src = list(hancock)
@end example

The signing examples in the following sections include the explicitly
designated @samp{signers} parameter in two of the five examples; once where
the resulting signature would be ASCII armoured and once where it
would not be armoured.

While it would be possible to enter a key ID or fingerprint here to
match a specific key, it is not possible to enter two fingerprints and
match two keys since the patten expects a string, bytes or None and
not a list.  A string with two fingerprints won't match any single
key.

@node Normal or default signing messages or files
@subsection Normal or default signing messages or files

The normal or default signing process is essentially the same as is
most often invoked when also encrypting a message or file.  So when
the encryption component is not utilised, the result is to produce an
encoded and signed output which may or may not be ASCII armoured and
which may or may not also be compressed.

By default compression will be used unless GnuPG detects that the
plaintext is already compressed.  ASCII armouring will be determined
according to the value of @samp{gpg.Context().armor}.

The compression algorithm is selected in much the same way as the
symmetric encryption algorithm or the hash digest algorithm is when
multiple keys are involved; from the preferences saved into the key
itself or by comparison with the preferences with all other keys
involved.

@example
import gpg

text0 = """Declaration of ... something.

"""
text = text0.encode()

c = gpg.Context(armor=True, signers=sig_src)
signed_data, result = c.sign(text, mode=gpg.constants.sig.mode.NORMAL)

with open("/path/to/statement.txt.asc", "w") as afile:
    afile.write(signed_data.decode())
@end example

Though everything in this example is accurate, it is more likely that
reading the input data from another file and writing the result to a
new file will be performed more like the way it is done in the next
example.  Even if the output format is ASCII armoured.

@example
import gpg

with open("/path/to/statement.txt", "rb") as tfile:
    text = tfile.read()

c = gpg.Context()
signed_data, result = c.sign(text, mode=gpg.constants.sig.mode.NORMAL)

with open("/path/to/statement.txt.sig", "wb") as afile:
    afile.write(signed_data)
@end example

@node Detached signing messages and files
@subsection Detached signing messages and files

Detached signatures will often be needed in programmatic uses of
GPGME, either for signing files (e.g. tarballs of code releases) or as
a component of message signing (e.g. PGP/MIME encoded email).

@example
import gpg

text0 = """Declaration of ... something.

"""
text = text0.encode()

c = gpg.Context(armor=True)
signed_data, result = c.sign(text, mode=gpg.constants.sig.mode.DETACH)

with open("/path/to/statement.txt.asc", "w") as afile:
    afile.write(signed_data.decode())
@end example

As with normal signatures, detached signatures are best handled as
byte literals, even when the output is ASCII armoured.

@example
import gpg

with open("/path/to/statement.txt", "rb") as tfile:
    text = tfile.read()

c = gpg.Context(signers=sig_src)
signed_data, result = c.sign(text, mode=gpg.constants.sig.mode.DETACH)

with open("/path/to/statement.txt.sig", "wb") as afile:
    afile.write(signed_data)
@end example

@node Clearsigning messages or text
@subsection Clearsigning messages or text

Though PGP/in-line messages are no longer encouraged in favour of
PGP/MIME, there is still sometimes value in utilising in-line
signatures.  This is where clear-signed messages or text is of value.

@example
import gpg

text0 = """Declaration of ... something.

"""
text = text0.encode()

c = gpg.Context()
signed_data, result = c.sign(text, mode=gpg.constants.sig.mode.CLEAR)

with open("/path/to/statement.txt.asc", "w") as afile:
    afile.write(signed_data.decode())
@end example

In spite of the appearance of a clear-signed message, the data handled
by GPGME in signing it must still be byte literals.

@example
import gpg

with open("/path/to/statement.txt", "rb") as tfile:
    text = tfile.read()

c = gpg.Context()
signed_data, result = c.sign(text, mode=gpg.constants.sig.mode.CLEAR)

with open("/path/to/statement.txt.asc", "wb") as afile:
    afile.write(signed_data)
@end example

@node Signature verification
@section Signature verification

Essentially there are two principal methods of verification of a
signature.  The first of these is for use with the normal or default
signing method and for clear-signed messages.  The second is for use
with files and data with detached signatures.

The following example is intended for use with the default signing
method where the file was not ASCII armoured:

@example
import gpg
import time

filename = "statement.txt"
gpg_file = "statement.txt.gpg"

c = gpg.Context()

try:
    data, result = c.verify(open(gpg_file))
    verified = True
except gpg.errors.BadSignatures as e:
    verified = False
    print(e)

if verified is True:
    for i in range(len(result.signatures)):
        sign = result.signatures[i]
        print("""Good signature from:
@{0@}
with key @{1@}
made at @{2@}
""".format(c.get_key(sign.fpr).uids[0].uid, sign.fpr,
           time.ctime(sign.timestamp)))
else:
    pass
@end example

Whereas this next example, which is almost identical would work with
normal ASCII armoured files and with clear-signed files:

@example
import gpg
import time

filename = "statement.txt"
asc_file = "statement.txt.asc"

c = gpg.Context()

try:
    data, result = c.verify(open(asc_file))
    verified = True
except gpg.errors.BadSignatures as e:
    verified = False
    print(e)

if verified is True:
    for i in range(len(result.signatures)):
        sign = result.signatures[i]
        print("""Good signature from:
@{0@}
with key @{1@}
made at @{2@}
""".format(c.get_key(sign.fpr).uids[0].uid, sign.fpr,
           time.ctime(sign.timestamp)))
else:
    pass
@end example

In both of the previous examples it is also possible to compare the
original data that was signed against the signed data in @samp{data} to see
if it matches with something like this:

@example
with open(filename, "rb") as afile:
    text = afile.read()

if text == data:
    print("Good signature.")
else:
    pass
@end example

The following two examples, however, deal with detached signatures.
With his method of verification the data that was signed does not get
returned since it is already being explicitly referenced in the first
argument of @samp{c.verify}.  So @samp{data} is @samp{None} and only the information
in @samp{result} is available.

@example
import gpg
import time

filename = "statement.txt"
sig_file = "statement.txt.sig"

c = gpg.Context()

try:
    data, result = c.verify(open(filename), open(sig_file))
    verified = True
except gpg.errors.BadSignatures as e:
    verified = False
    print(e)

if verified is True:
    for i in range(len(result.signatures)):
        sign = result.signatures[i]
        print("""Good signature from:
@{0@}
with key @{1@}
made at @{2@}
""".format(c.get_key(sign.fpr).uids[0].uid, sign.fpr,
           time.ctime(sign.timestamp)))
else:
    pass
@end example

@example
import gpg
import time

filename = "statement.txt"
asc_file = "statement.txt.asc"

c = gpg.Context()

try:
    data, result = c.verify(open(filename), open(asc_file))
    verified = True
except gpg.errors.BadSignatures as e:
    verified = False
    print(e)

if verified is True:
    for i in range(len(result.signatures)):
        sign = result.signatures[i]
        print("""Good signature from:
@{0@}
with key @{1@}
made at @{2@}
""".format(c.get_key(sign.fpr).uids[0].uid, sign.fpr,
           time.ctime(sign.timestamp)))
else:
    pass
@end example

@node Creating keys and subkeys
@chapter Creating keys and subkeys

The one thing, aside from GnuPG itself, that GPGME depends on, of
course, is the keys themselves.  So it is necessary to be able to
generate them and modify them by adding subkeys, revoking or disabling
them, sometimes deleting them and doing the same for user IDs.

In the following examples a key will be created for the world's
greatest secret agent, Danger Mouse.  Since Danger Mouse is a secret
agent he needs to be able to protect information to @samp{SECRET} level
clearance, so his keys will be 3072-bit keys.

The pre-configured @samp{gpg.conf} file which sets cipher, digest and other
preferences contains the following configuration parameters:

@example
expert
allow-freeform-uid
allow-secret-key-import
trust-model tofu+pgp
tofu-default-policy unknown
enable-large-rsa
enable-dsa2
cert-digest-algo SHA512
default-preference-list TWOFISH CAMELLIA256 AES256 CAMELLIA192 AES192 CAMELLIA128 AES BLOWFISH IDEA CAST5 3DES SHA512 SHA384 SHA256 SHA224 RIPEMD160 SHA1 ZLIB BZIP2 ZIP Uncompressed
personal-cipher-preferences TWOFISH CAMELLIA256 AES256 CAMELLIA192 AES192 CAMELLIA128 AES BLOWFISH IDEA CAST5 3DES
personal-digest-preferences SHA512 SHA384 SHA256 SHA224 RIPEMD160 SHA1
personal-compress-preferences ZLIB BZIP2 ZIP Uncompressed
@end example

@menu
* Primary key::
* Subkeys::
* User IDs::
* Key certification::
@end menu

@node Primary key
@section Primary key

Generating a primary key uses the @samp{create_key} method in a Context.
It contains multiple arguments and keyword arguments, including:
@samp{userid}, @samp{algorithm}, @samp{expires_in}, @samp{expires}, @samp{sign}, @samp{encrypt},
@samp{certify}, @samp{authenticate}, @samp{passphrase} and @samp{force}.  The defaults for
all of those except @samp{userid}, @samp{algorithm}, @samp{expires_in}, @samp{expires} and
@samp{passphrase} is @samp{False}.  The defaults for @samp{algorithm} and
@samp{passphrase} is @samp{None}.  The default for @samp{expires_in} is @samp{0}.  The
default for @samp{expires} is @samp{True}.  There is no default for @samp{userid}.

If @samp{passphrase} is left as @samp{None} then the key will not be generated
with a passphrase, if @samp{passphrase} is set to a string then that will
be the passphrase and if @samp{passphrase} is set to @samp{True} then gpg-agent
will launch pinentry to prompt for a passphrase.  For the sake of
convenience, these examples will keep @samp{passphrase} set to @samp{None}.

@example
import gpg

c = gpg.Context()

c.home_dir = "~/.gnupg-dm"
userid = "Danger Mouse <dm@@secret.example.net>"

dmkey = c.create_key(userid, algorithm="rsa3072", expires_in=31536000,
                     sign=True, certify=True)
@end example

One thing to note here is the use of setting the @samp{c.home_dir}
parameter.  This enables generating the key or keys in a different
location.  In this case to keep the new key data created for this
example in a separate location rather than adding it to existing and
active key store data.  As with the default directory, @samp{~/.gnupg}, any
temporary or separate directory needs the permissions set to only
permit access by the directory owner.  On posix systems this means
setting the directory permissions to 700.

The @samp{temp-homedir-config.py} script in the HOWTO examples directory
will create an alternative homedir with these configuration options
already set and the correct directory and file permissions.

The successful generation of the key can be confirmed via the returned
@samp{GenkeyResult} object, which includes the following data:

@example
print("""
 Fingerprint:  @{0@}
 Primary Key:  @{1@}
  Public Key:  @{2@}
  Secret Key:  @{3@}
 Sub Key:  @{4@}
User IDs:  @{5@}
""".format(dmkey.fpr, dmkey.primary, dmkey.pubkey, dmkey.seckey, dmkey.sub,
           dmkey.uid))
@end example

Alternatively the information can be confirmed using the command line
program:

@example
bash-4.4$ gpg --homedir ~/.gnupg-dm -K
~/.gnupg-dm/pubring.kbx
----------------------
sec   rsa3072 2018-03-15 [SC] [expires: 2019-03-15]
      177B7C25DB99745EE2EE13ED026D2F19E99E63AA
uid           [ultimate] Danger Mouse <dm@@secret.example.net>

bash-4.4$
@end example

As with generating keys manually, to preconfigure expanded preferences
for the cipher, digest and compression algorithms, the @samp{gpg.conf} file
must contain those details in the home directory in which the new key
is being generated.  I used a cut down version of my own @samp{gpg.conf}
file in order to be able to generate this:

@example
bash-4.4$ gpg --homedir ~/.gnupg-dm --edit-key 177B7C25DB99745EE2EE13ED026D2F19E99E63AA showpref quit
Secret key is available.

sec  rsa3072/026D2F19E99E63AA
     created: 2018-03-15  expires: 2019-03-15  usage: SC
     trust: ultimate      validity: ultimate
[ultimate] (1). Danger Mouse <dm@@secret.example.net>

[ultimate] (1). Danger Mouse <dm@@secret.example.net>
     Cipher: TWOFISH, CAMELLIA256, AES256, CAMELLIA192, AES192, CAMELLIA128, AES, BLOWFISH, IDEA, CAST5, 3DES
     Digest: SHA512, SHA384, SHA256, SHA224, RIPEMD160, SHA1
     Compression: ZLIB, BZIP2, ZIP, Uncompressed
     Features: MDC, Keyserver no-modify

bash-4.4$
@end example

@node Subkeys
@section Subkeys

Adding subkeys to a primary key is fairly similar to creating the
primary key with the @samp{create_subkey} method.  Most of the arguments
are the same, but not quite all.  Instead of the @samp{userid} argument
there is now a @samp{key} argument for selecting which primary key to add
the subkey to.

In the following example an encryption subkey will be added to the
primary key.  Since Danger Mouse is a security conscious secret agent,
this subkey will only be valid for about six months, half the length
of the primary key.

@example
import gpg

c = gpg.Context()
c.home_dir = "~/.gnupg-dm"

key = c.get_key(dmkey.fpr, secret=True)
dmsub = c.create_subkey(key, algorithm="rsa3072", expires_in=15768000,
                        encrypt=True)
@end example

As with the primary key, the results here can be checked with:

@example
print("""
 Fingerprint:  @{0@}
 Primary Key:  @{1@}
  Public Key:  @{2@}
  Secret Key:  @{3@}
 Sub Key:  @{4@}
User IDs:  @{5@}
""".format(dmsub.fpr, dmsub.primary, dmsub.pubkey, dmsub.seckey, dmsub.sub,
           dmsub.uid))
@end example

As well as on the command line with:

@example
bash-4.4$ gpg --homedir ~/.gnupg-dm -K
~/.gnupg-dm/pubring.kbx
----------------------
sec   rsa3072 2018-03-15 [SC] [expires: 2019-03-15]
      177B7C25DB99745EE2EE13ED026D2F19E99E63AA
uid           [ultimate] Danger Mouse <dm@@secret.example.net>
ssb   rsa3072 2018-03-15 [E] [expires: 2018-09-13]

bash-4.4$
@end example

@node User IDs
@section User IDs

@menu
* Adding User IDs::
* Revokinging User IDs::
@end menu

@node Adding User IDs
@subsection Adding User IDs

By comparison to creating primary keys and subkeys, adding a new user
ID to an existing key is much simpler.  The method used to do this is
@samp{key_add_uid} and the only arguments it takes are for the @samp{key} and
the new @samp{uid}.

@example
import gpg

c = gpg.Context()
c.home_dir = "~/.gnupg-dm"

dmfpr = "177B7C25DB99745EE2EE13ED026D2F19E99E63AA"
key = c.get_key(dmfpr, secret=True)
uid = "Danger Mouse <danger.mouse@@secret.example.net>"

c.key_add_uid(key, uid)
@end example

Unsurprisingly the result of this is:

@example
bash-4.4$ gpg --homedir ~/.gnupg-dm -K
~/.gnupg-dm/pubring.kbx
----------------------
sec   rsa3072 2018-03-15 [SC] [expires: 2019-03-15]
      177B7C25DB99745EE2EE13ED026D2F19E99E63AA
uid           [ultimate] Danger Mouse <danger.mouse@@secret.example.net>
uid           [ultimate] Danger Mouse <dm@@secret.example.net>
ssb   rsa3072 2018-03-15 [E] [expires: 2018-09-13]

bash-4.4$
@end example

@node Revokinging User IDs
@subsection Revokinging User IDs

Revoking a user ID is a fairly similar process, except that it uses
the @samp{key_revoke_uid} method.

@example
import gpg

c = gpg.Context()
c.home_dir = "~/.gnupg-dm"

dmfpr = "177B7C25DB99745EE2EE13ED026D2F19E99E63AA"
key = c.get_key(dmfpr, secret=True)
uid = "Danger Mouse <danger.mouse@@secret.example.net>"

c.key_revoke_uid(key, uid)
@end example

@node Key certification
@section Key certification

Since key certification is more frequently referred to as key signing,
the method used to perform this function is @samp{key_sign}.

The @samp{key_sign} method takes four arguments: @samp{key}, @samp{uids},
@samp{expires_in} and @samp{local}.  The default value of @samp{uids} is @samp{None} and
which results in all user IDs being selected.  The default value of
both @samp{expires_in} and @samp{local} is @samp{False}; which results in the
signature never expiring and being able to be exported.

The @samp{key} is the key being signed rather than the key doing the
signing.  To change the key doing the signing refer to the signing key
selection above for signing messages and files.

If the @samp{uids} value is not @samp{None} then it must either be a string to
match a single user ID or a list of strings to match multiple user
IDs.  In this case the matching of those strings must be precise and
it is case sensitive.

To sign Danger Mouse's key for just the initial user ID with a
signature which will last a little over a month, do this:

@example
import gpg

c = gpg.Context()
uid = "Danger Mouse <dm@@secret.example.net>"

dmfpr = "177B7C25DB99745EE2EE13ED026D2F19E99E63AA"
key = c.get_key(dmfpr, secret=True)
c.key_sign(key, uids=uid, expires_in=2764800)
@end example

@node Advanced or Experimental Use Cases
@chapter Advanced or Experimental Use Cases

@menu
* C plus Python plus SWIG plus Cython::
@end menu

@node C plus Python plus SWIG plus Cython
@section C plus Python plus SWIG plus Cython

In spite of the apparent incongruence of using Python bindings to a C
interface only to generate more C from the Python; it is in fact quite
possible to use the GPGME bindings with @uref{http://docs.cython.org/en/latest/index.html, Cython}.  Though in many cases
the benefits may not be obvious since the most computationally
intensive work never leaves the level of the C code with which GPGME
itself is interacting with.

Nevertheless, there are some situations where the benefits are
demonstrable.  One of the better and easier examples being the one of
the early examples in this HOWTO, the @ref{Counting keys, , key counting} code.  Running that
example as an executable Python script, @samp{keycount.py} (available in
the @samp{examples/howto/} directory), will take a noticable amount of time
to run on most systems where the public keybox or keyring contains a
few thousand public keys.

Earlier in the evening, prior to starting this section, I ran that
script on my laptop; as I tend to do periodically and timed it using
@samp{time} utility, with the following results:

@example
bash-4.4$ time keycount.py

Number of secret keys:  23
Number of public keys:  12112


real        11m52.945s
user        0m0.913s
sys        0m0.752s

bash-4.4$
@end example

Sometime after that I imported another key and followed it with a
little test of Cython.  This test was kept fairly basic, essentially
lifting the material from the @uref{http://docs.cython.org/en/latest/src/tutorial/cython_tutorial.html, Cython Basic Tutorial} to demonstrate
compiling Python code to C.  The first step was to take the example
key counting code quoted previously, essentially from the importing of
the @samp{gpg} module to the end of the script:

@example
import gpg

c = gpg.Context()
seckeys = c.keylist(pattern=None, secret=True)
pubkeys = c.keylist(pattern=None, secret=False)

seclist = list(seckeys)
secnum = len(seclist)

publist = list(pubkeys)
pubnum = len(publist)

print("""
    Number of secret keys:  @{0@}
    Number of public keys:  @{1@}

""".format(secnum, pubnum))
@end example

Save that into a file called @samp{keycount.pyx} and then create a
@samp{setup.py} file which contains this:

@example
from distutils.core import setup
from Cython.Build import cythonize

setup(
    ext_modules = cythonize("keycount.pyx")
)
@end example

Compile it:

@example
bash-4.4$ python setup.py build_ext --inplace
bash-4.4$
@end example

Then run it in a similar manner to @samp{keycount.py}:

@example
bash-4.4$ time python3.7 -c "import keycount"

Number of secret keys:  23
Number of public keys:  12113


real        6m47.905s
user        0m0.785s
sys        0m0.331s

bash-4.4$
@end example

Cython turned @samp{keycount.pyx} into an 81KB @samp{keycount.o} file in the
@samp{build/} directory, a 24KB @samp{keycount.cpython-37m-darwin.so} file to be
imported into Python 3.7 and a 113KB @samp{keycount.c} generated C source
code file of nearly three thousand lines.  Quite a bit bigger than the
314 bytes of the @samp{keycount.pyx} file or the full 1,452 bytes of the
full executable @samp{keycount.py} example script.

On the other hand it ran in nearly half the time; taking 6 minutes and
47.905 seconds to run.  As opposed to the 11 minutes and 52.945 seconds
which the CPython script alone took.

The @samp{keycount.pyx} and @samp{setup.py} files used to generate this example
have been added to the @samp{examples/howto/advanced/cython/} directory
The example versions include some additional options to annotate the
existing code and to detect Cython's use.  The latter comes from the
@uref{http://docs.cython.org/en/latest/src/tutorial/pure.html#magic-attributes-within-the-pxd, Magic Attributes} section of the Cython documentation.

@node Miscellaneous extras and work-arounds
@chapter Miscellaneous extras and work-arounds

Most of the things in the following sections are here simply because
there was no better place to put them, even though some are only
peripherally related to the GPGME Python bindings.  Some are also
workarounds for functions not integrated with GPGME as yet.  This is
especially true of the first of these, dealing with @ref{Group lines, , group lines}.

@menu
* Group lines::
* Keyserver access for Python::
@end menu

@node Group lines
@section Group lines

There is not yet an easy way to access groups configured in the
gpg.conf file from within GPGME.  As a consequence these central
groupings of keys cannot be shared amongst multiple programs, such as
MUAs readily.

The following code, however, provides a work-around for obtaining this
information in Python.

@example
import subprocess
import sys

if sys.platform == "win32":
    gpgconfcmd = "gpgconf.exe --list-options gpg"
else:
    gpgconfcmd = "gpgconf --list-options gpg"

try:
    lines = subprocess.getoutput(gpgconfcmd).splitlines()
except:
    process = subprocess.Popen(gpgconfcmd.split(), stdout=subprocess.PIPE)
    procom = process.communicate()
    if sys.version_info[0] == 2:
        lines = procom[0].splitlines()
    else:
        lines = procom[0].decode().splitlines()

for i in range(len(lines)):
    if lines[i].startswith("group") is True:
        line = lines[i]
    else:
        pass

groups = line.split(":")[-1].replace('"', '').split(',')

group_lines = []
group_lists = []

for i in range(len(groups)):
    group_lines.append(groups[i].split("="))
    group_lists.append(groups[i].split("="))

for i in range(len(group_lists)):
    group_lists[i][1] = group_lists[i][1].split()
@end example

The result of that code is that @samp{group_lines} is a list of lists where
@samp{group_lines[i][0]} is the name of the group and @samp{group_lines[i][1]}
is the key IDs of the group as a string.

The @samp{group_lists} result is very similar in that it is a list of
lists.  The first part, @samp{group_lists[i][0]} matches
@samp{group_lines[i][0]} as the name of the group, but @samp{group_lists[i][1]}
is the key IDs of the group as a string.

A demonstration of using the @samp{groups.py} module is also available in
the form of the executable @samp{mutt-groups.py} script.  This second
script reads all the group entries in a user's @samp{gpg.conf} file and
converts them into crypt-hooks suitable for use with the Mutt and
Neomutt mail clients.

@node Keyserver access for Python
@section Keyserver access for Python

The @uref{https://github.com/Selfnet/hkp4py, hkp4py} module by Marcel Fest was originally a port of the old
@uref{https://github.com/dgladkov/python-hkp, python-hkp} module from Python 2 to Python 3 and updated to use the
@uref{http://docs.python-requests.org/en/latest/index.html, requests} module instead.  It has since been modified to provide
support for Python 2.7 as well and is available via PyPI.

Since it rewrites the @samp{hkp} protocol prefix as @samp{http} and @samp{hkps} as
@samp{https}, the module is able to be used even with servers which do not
support the full scope of keyserver functions.@footnote{Such as with ProtonMail servers.  This also means that
restricted servers which only advertise either HTTP or HTTPS end
points and not HKP or HKPS end points must still be identified as as
HKP or HKPS within the Python Code.  The @samp{hkp4py} module will rewrite
these appropriately when the connection is made to the server.}  It also works quite
readily when incorporated into a @ref{C plus Python plus SWIG plus Cython, , Cython} generated and compiled version
of any code.

@menu
* Key import format::
@end menu

@node Key import format
@subsection Key import format

The hkp4py module returns key data via requests as string literals
(@samp{r.text}) instead of byte literals (@samp{r.content}).  This means that
the retrurned key data must be encoded to UTF-8 when importing that
key material using a @samp{gpg.Context().key_import()} method.

For this reason an alternative method has been added to the @samp{search}
function of @samp{hkp4py.KeyServer()} which returns the key in the correct
format as expected by @samp{key_import}.  When importing using this module,
it is now possible to import with this:

@example
for key in keys:
    if key.revoked is False:
        gpg.Context().key_import(key.key_blob)
    else:
        pass
@end example

Without that recent addition it would have been necessary to encode
the contents of each @samp{hkp4py.KeyServer().search()[i].key} in
@samp{hkp4py.KeyServer().search()} before trying to import it.

An example of this is included in the @ref{Importing keys, , Importing Keys} section of this
HOWTO and the corresponding executable version of that example is
available in the @samp{lang/python/examples/howto} directory as normal; the
executable version is the @samp{import-keys-hkp.py} file.

@node Copyright and Licensing
@chapter Copyright and Licensing

@menu
* Copyright::
* Draft Editions of this HOWTO::
* License GPL compatible::
@end menu

@node Copyright
@section Copyright

Copyright © The GnuPG Project, 2018.

Copyright (C) The GnuPG Project, 2018.

@node Draft Editions of this HOWTO
@section Draft Editions of this HOWTO

Draft editions of this HOWTO may be periodically available directly
from the author at any of the following URLs:

@itemize
@item
@uref{https://files.au.adversary.org/crypto/gpgme-python-howto.html, GPGME Python Bindings HOWTO draft (XHTML AWS S3 SSL)}
@item
@uref{http://files.au.adversary.org/crypto/gpgme-python-howto.html, GPGME Python Bindings HOWTO draft (XHTML AWS S3 no SSL)}
@item
@uref{https://files.au.adversary.org/crypto/gpgme-python-howto.texi, GPGME Python Bindings HOWTO draft (Texinfo file AWS S3 SSL)}
@item
@uref{http://files.au.adversary.org/crypto/gpgme-python-howto.texi, GPGME Python Bindings HOWTO draft (Texinfo file AWS S3 no SSL)}
@item
@uref{https://files.au.adversary.org/crypto/gpgme-python-howto.info, GPGME Python Bindings HOWTO draft (Info file AWS S3 SSL)}
@item
@uref{http://files.au.adversary.org/crypto/gpgme-python-howto.info, GPGME Python Bindings HOWTO draft (Info file AWS S3 no SSL)}
@item
@uref{https://files.au.adversary.org/crypto/gpgme-python-howto.rst, GPGME Python Bindings HOWTO draft (reST file AWS S3 SSL)}
@item
@uref{http://files.au.adversary.org/crypto/gpgme-python-howto.rst, GPGME Python Bindings HOWTO draft (reST file AWS S3 no SSL)}
@item
@uref{https://files.au.adversary.org/crypto/gpgme-python-howto.xml, GPGME Python Bindings HOWTO draft (Docbook 4.2 AWS S3 SSL)}
@item
@uref{http://files.au.adversary.org/crypto/gpgme-python-howto.xml, GPGME Python Bindings HOWTO draft (Docbook 4.2 AWS S3 no SSL)}
@end itemize

All of these draft versions except for one have been generated from
this document via Emacs @uref{https://orgmode.org/, Org mode} and @uref{https://www.gnu.org/software/texinfo/, GNU Texinfo}.  Though it is likely
that the specific @uref{https://files.au.adversary.org/crypto/gpgme-python-howto.org, file} @uref{http://files.au.adversary.org/crypto/gpgme-python-howto.org, version} used will be on the same server with
the generated output formats.

The one exception is the reStructuredText version, which was converted
using the latest version of Pandoc from the Org mode source file using
the following command:

@example
pandoc -f org -t rst+smart -o gpgme-python-howto.rst gpgme-python-howto.org
@end example

In addition to these there is a significantly less frequently updated
version as a HTML @uref{https://files.au.adversary.org/crypto/gpgme-python-howto/webhelp/index.html, WebHelp site} (AWS S3 SSL); generated from DITA XML
source files, which can be found in @uref{https://dev.gnupg.org/source/gpgme/browse/ben%252Fhowto-dita/, an alternative branch} of the GPGME
git repository.

These draft editions are not official documents and the version of
documentation in the master branch or which ships with released
versions is the only official documentation.  Nevertheless, these
draft editions may occasionally be of use by providing more accessible
web versions which are updated between releases.  They are provided on
the understanding that they may contain errors or may contain content
subject to change prior to an official release.

@node License GPL compatible
@section License GPL compatible

This file is free software; as a special exception the author gives
unlimited permission to copy and/or distribute it, with or without
modifications, as long as this notice is preserved.

This file is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but
WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY, to the extent permitted by law; without even the
implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
PURPOSE.

@bye